@article {96431, title = {Nuclear genetic diversity of head lice sheds light on human dispersal around the world}, journal = {PLoS One}, volume = {18}, year = {2023}, month = {Nov-08-2023}, pages = {30 pp}, abstract = {

The human louse, Pediculus humanus, is an obligate blood-sucking ectoparasite that has coevolved with humans for millennia. Given the intimate relationship between this parasite and the human host, the study of human lice has the potential to shed light on aspects of human evolution that are difficult to interpret using other biological evidence. In this study, we analyzed the genetic variation in 274 human lice from 25 geographic sites around the world by using nuclear microsatellite loci and female-inherited mitochondrial DNA sequences. Nuclear genetic diversity analysis revealed the presence of two distinct genetic clusters I and II, which are subdivided into subclusters: Ia-Ib and IIa-IIb, respectively. Among these samples, we observed the presence of the two most common louse mitochondrial haplogroups: A and B that were found in both nuclear Clusters I and II. Evidence of nuclear admixture was uncommon (12\%) and was predominate in the New World potentially mirroring the history of colonization in the Americas. These findings were supported by novel DIYABC simulations that were built using both host and parasite data to define parameters and models suggesting that admixture between cI and cII was very recent. This pattern could also be the result of a reproductive barrier between these two nuclear genetic clusters. In addition to providing new evolutionary knowledge about this human parasite, our study could guide the development of new analyses in other host-parasite systems.

}, issn = {1932-6203}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0293409}, url = {https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0293409}, author = {Ascunce, Marina S. and Toloza,Ariel Ceferino and Ang{\'e}lica Gonz{\'a}lez-Oliver and David L. Reed} } @article {96144, title = {Ba{\c s} biti enfestasyonlar{\i}n{\i}n etkin kontrol{\"u} i{\c c}in uluslararas{\i} tavsiyeler}, journal = {Turk Hijyen ve Deneysel Biyoloji Dergisi}, volume = {79}, year = {2022}, month = {Jan-01-2022}, pages = {748-761}, abstract = {

Ba{\c s} biti enfestasyonlar{\i}n{\i}n etkin kontrol\ü i\çin uluslararas{\i} tavsiyeler

Ba{\c s} biti enfestasyonlar{\i}, en geli{\c s}mi{\c s} olanlar da d\âhil olmak \üzere \ço{\u g}u \ülkede halk sa{\u g}l{\i}{\u g}{\i}n{\i} ilgilendiren bir sorun olmaya devam etmektedir. Makalede sunulan tavsiyeler, bu parazitin prevalans{\i}n{\i} azaltmak amac{\i}yla ba{\c s} biti kontrol\ünde farkl{\i} otoritelerin, kurumlar{\i}n, end\üstrinin ve kamunun rollerini ve etkilerini vurgulamay{\i} ve bilgilendirmeyi ama\çlamaktad{\i}r. Sa{\u g}l{\i}k yetkililerini, bu t\ür enfestasyonlar{\i}n do{\u g}ru {\c s}ekilde tespit edilmesi; mevcut ve yeni pedik\ülositler, t{\i}bbi cihazlar, repellentler, bit ve yumurta giderici \ür\ünlerin de{\u g}erlendirilmesi amac{\i}yla daha etkili y\öntemler izlemeye te{\c s}vik etmeyi umuyoruz. Pedik\ülositler ve t{\i}bbi cihazlar, kullan{\i}m talimatlar{\i}nda do{\u g}rulanabilir a\ç{\i}klamalara sahip olmal{\i} ayr{\i}ca aktif bile{\c s}enlere ve form\üle \ür\ünlere kar{\c s}{\i} bitlerin diren\ç seviyelerinin mevcut durumunu belgelemek i\çin periyodik olarak test edilmelidir. Bit yayg{\i}nl{\i}{\u g}{\i}n{\i}n salg{\i}n d\üzeyine ula{\c s}t{\i}{\u g}{\i} iddialar{\i} ortaya at{\i}ld{\i}{\u g}{\i}nda, ger\çek yayg{\i}nl{\i}k d\üzeyinin kan{\i}tlanmas{\i} amac{\i}yla \çocuklar periyodik aral{\i}klarla objektif olarak de{\u g}erlendirilmelidir. Sa{\u g}l{\i}k hizmeti sunanlar ve toplum geneli i\çin d\üzenlenen s\ürekli e{\u g}itimlerle bitlerin biyolojisi, \önlenmesi ve kontrol\ü konusundaki yanl{\i}{\c s} bilgilerin d\üzeltilmesi sa{\u g}lanabilir. Ebeveynler, \çocuklar{\i}n{\i} ba{\c s} biti a\ç{\i}s{\i}ndan d\üzenli olarak kontrol etmeli ve gerekti{\u g}inde tedavi etmelidir. Sa{\u g}l{\i}k yetkilileri, vakalar{\i} ve yayg{\i}nl{\i}{\u g}{\i} azaltmada bir ara\ç olarak kullan{\i}lan ancak bilimsel gerek\çesi olmad{\i}{\u g}{\i} gibi \çocuklar{\i}n sa{\u g}l{\i}{\u g}{\i} ve huzuruna da ters etki yapan \“sirkeye ge\çit yok- no-nit politikas{\i}\” tarz{\i}nda \çocuklar{\i} okuldan uzakla{\c s}t{\i}rmaya dayal{\i} politika ve uygulamalar{\i}n ortadan kald{\i}r{\i}lmas{\i} i\çin m\ücadele etmelidir.

The English version see https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ijd.15096 Or https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/node/95099

}, keywords = {Ba{\c s} biti, kontrol, tedavi}, issn = {0377-9777, 1308-2523}, doi = {10.5505/turkhijyen.2022.78872}, url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.5505/turkhijyen.2022.78872}, author = {Kosta Y. Mumcuoglu and Richard J. Pollack and David L. Reed and Stephen C. Barker and Gordon,S. C. and Toloza,Ariel Ceferino and Picollo,Mar{\'\i}a In{\'e}s and Taylan-Ozkan,Aysegul and Chosidow,Olivier and Habedank,Birgit and Ibarra,Joanna and Meinking,Terri Lynn and Vander Stichele,Robert H.} } @article {95698, title = {Effects of 16S rDNA sampling on estimates of the number of endosymbiont lineages in sucking lice}, journal = {PeerJ }, volume = {4}, year = {2016}, month = {Jul-19-2016}, abstract = {

Phylogenetic trees can reveal the origins of endosymbiotic lineages of bacteria and detect patterns of co-evolution with their hosts. Although taxon sampling can greatly affect phylogenetic and co-evolutionary inference, most hypotheses of endosymbiont relationships are based on few available bacterial sequences. Here we examined how different sampling strategies ofGammaproteobacteriasequences affect estimates of the number of endosymbiont lineages in parasitic sucking lice (Insecta: Phthirapatera: Anoplura). We estimated the number of louse endosymbiont lineages using both newly obtained and previously sequenced 16S rDNA bacterial sequences and more than 42,000 16S rDNA sequences from otherGammaproteobacteria. We also performed parametric and nonparametric bootstrapping experiments to examine the effects of phylogenetic error and uncertainty on these estimates. Sampling of 16S rDNA sequences affects the estimates of endosymbiont diversity in sucking lice until we reach a threshold of genetic diversity, the size of which depends on the sampling strategy. Sampling by maximizing the diversity of 16S rDNA sequences is more efficient than randomly sampling available 16S rDNA sequences. Although simulation results validate estimates of multiple endosymbiont lineages in sucking lice, the bootstrap results suggest that the precise number of endosymbiont origins is still uncertain.

}, keywords = {16S rDNA, Anoplura, Endosymbiont, Endosymbiosis, Gammaproteobacteria, Phylogenetics, sucking lice}, issn = {2167-8359}, doi = {10.7717/peerj.2187}, url = {https://peerj.com/articles/2187/}, author = {Julie M. Allen and J. Gordon Burleigh and Jessica E. Light and David L. Reed} } @article {95643, title = {Evolutionary history of mammalian sucking lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura)}, journal = {BMC Ecology and Evolution}, volume = {10}, year = {2010}, month = {Sept 2010}, pages = {15 pp}, abstract = {

Background

Sucking lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura) are obligate, permanent ectoparasites of eutherian mammals, parasitizing members of 12 of the 29 recognized mammalian orders and approximately 20\% of all mammalian species. These host specific, blood-sucking insects are morphologically adapted for life on mammals: they are wingless, dorso-ventrally flattened, possess tibio-tarsal claws for clinging to host hair, and have piercing mouthparts for feeding. Although there are more than 540 described species of Anoplura and despite the potential economical and medical implications of sucking louse infestations, this study represents the first attempt to examine higher-level anopluran relationships using molecular data. In this study, we use molecular data to reconstruct the evolutionary history of 65 sucking louse taxa with phylogenetic analyses and compare the results to findings based on morphological data. We also estimate divergence times among anopluran taxa and compare our results to host (mammal) relationships.

Results

This study represents the first phylogenetic hypothesis of sucking louse relationships using molecular data and we find significant conflict between phylogenies constructed using molecular and morphological data. We also find that multiple families and genera of sucking lice are not monophyletic and that extensive taxonomic revision will be necessary for this group. Based on our divergence dating analyses, sucking lice diversified in the late Cretaceous, approximately 77 Ma, and soon after the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (ca. 65 Ma) these lice proliferated rapidly to parasitize multiple mammalian orders and families.

Conclusions

The diversification time of sucking lice approximately 77 Ma is in agreement with mammalian evolutionary history: all modern mammal orders are hypothesized to have diverged by 75 Ma thus providing suitable habitat for the colonization and radiation of sucking lice. Despite the concordant timing of diversification events early in the association between anoplurans and mammals, there is substantial conflict between the host and parasite phylogenies. This conflict is likely the result of a complex history of host switching and extinction events that occurred throughout the evolutionary association between sucking lice and their mammalian hosts. It is unlikely that there are any ectoparasite groups (including lice) that tracked the early and rapid radiation of eutherian mammals.

}, keywords = {chewing louse, Codon position, host switching, Mammalian host, Taxon sampling}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-10-292}, url = {https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2148-10-292}, author = {Jessica E. Light and Vincent Stuart Smith and Julie M. Allen and Lance A. Durden and David L. Reed} } @article {95099, title = {International recommendations for an effective control of head louse infestations}, journal = {International Journal of Dermatology}, volume = {60}, year = {2021}, month = {08-2020}, pages = {272-280}, type = {Open access, online version prior to inclusion of issue}, abstract = {

Head louse infestations continue to be a concern of public health in most countries, including the most developed ones. The present recommendations are intended to inform and stress the role and impact of the different authorities, institutions, industry, and the public in the control of head lice in order to reduce the prevalence of this parasite. We encourage health authorities to pursue more effective methods to correctly identify such infestations, and evaluate existing and new pediculicides, medical devices, louse repellents, and louse- and nit-removal remedies. Pediculicides and medical devices must have verifiable claims in the instructions for use and should be tested periodically to document current levels of resistance by lice to the active ingredients and to the formulated products. Where the prevalence of lice is claimed to be epidemic, children should be periodically evaluated objectively to document the actual level of prevalence. Continuing education for health providers and the general population promises to correct misinformation regarding the biology, prevention, and management of lice. Parents should regularly inspect their children for head lice and treat as necessary. Health authorities are encouraged to eliminate policies and practices that rely upon school exclusion as a means to reduce incidence and prevalence, e.g., the \‘no-nit\’ policy which lacks scientific justification, and are counterproductive to the health and welfare of children.

Attachment 95099.pdf -online version published 2020

The published version in Turkish, see Mumcuo{\u g}lu KY, Pollack RJ, Reed D, Barker S, Gordon S, Toloza AC, Picollo MI, Taylan \Özkan A, Chosidow O, Habedank B, Ibarra J, Meinking TL, Vander Stichele R. Ba{\c s} biti enfestasyonlar{\i}n{\i}n etkin kontrol\ü i\çin uluslararas{\i} tavsiyeler Turk Hijyen ve Deneysel Biyoloji Dergisi 2021; 79(4): 748\–761. doi: 10.5505/TurkHijyen.2022.78872 https://www.turkhijyen.org/jvi.aspx?pdir=turkhijyen\&plng=tur\&un=THDBD-78872\&look4= OR DOI: 10.5505/TurkHijyen.2022.78872 OR https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/node/96144

}, keywords = {head louse infestation, head louse treatment, Pediculicides}, issn = {0011-9059}, doi = {10.1111/ijd.15096}, url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ijd.15096}, author = {Kosta Y. Mumcuoglu and Richard J. Pollack and David L. Reed and Stephen C. Barker and Gordon,S. C. and Toloza,Ariel Ceferino and Picollo,Mar{\'\i}a In{\'e}s and Taylan-Ozkan,Aysegul and Chosidow,Olivier and Habedank,Birgit and Ibarra,Joanna and Meinking,Terri Lynn and Vander Stichele,Robert H.} } @article {94804, title = {Nuclear Genetic Diversity in Human Lice (Pediculus humanus) Reveals Continental Differences and High Inbreeding among Worldwide Populations}, journal = {PLoS ONE}, volume = {8}, year = {2013}, month = {02-2015}, pages = {e57619}, type = {Open Access}, abstract = {

Understanding the evolution of parasites is important to both basic and applied evolutionary biology. Knowledge of the genetic structure of parasite populations is critical for our ability to predict how an infection can spread through a host population and for the design of effective control methods. However, very little is known about the genetic structure of most human parasites, including the human louse (Pediculus humanus). This species is composed of two ecotypes: the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis De Geer), and the clothing (body) louse (Pediculus humanus humanus Linnaeus). Hundreds of millions of head louse infestations affect children every year, and this number is on the rise, in part because of increased resistance to insecticides. Clothing lice affect mostly homeless and refugee-camp populations and although they are less prevalent than head lice, the medical consequences are more severe because they vector deadly bacterial pathogens. In this study we present the first assessment of the genetic structure of human louse populations by analyzing the nuclear genetic variation at 15 newly developed microsatellite loci in 93 human lice from 11 sites in four world regions. Both ecotypes showed heterozygote deficits relative to Hardy\–Weinberg equilibrium and high inbreeding values, an expected pattern given their parasitic life history. Bayesian clustering analyses assigned lice to four distinct genetic clusters that were geographically structured. The low levels of gene flow among louse populations suggested that the evolution of insecticide resistance in lice would most likely be affected by local selection pressures, underscoring the importance of tailoring control strategies to population-specific genetic makeup and evolutionary history. Our panel of microsatellite markers provides powerful data to investigate not only ecological and evolutionary processes in lice, but also those in their human hosts because of the long-term coevolutionary association between lice and humans.

}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0057619}, url = {https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057619}, author = {Ascunce, Marina S. and Toups,M. A. and G. Kassu and J. Fane and Scholl, Katlyn and David L. Reed} } @article {94801, title = {Genotyping of Human Lice Suggests Multiple Emergences of Body Lice from Local Head Louse Populations}, journal = {PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases}, volume = {4}, year = {2010}, month = {03-2010}, pages = {e641}, type = {Open Access}, abstract = {

Background:\ Genetic analyses of human lice have shown that the current taxonomic classification of head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) and body lice (Pediculus humanus humanus) does not reflect their phylogenetic organization. Three phylotypes of head lice A, B and C exist but body lice have been observed only in phylotype A. Head and body lice have different behaviours and only the latter have been involved in outbreaks of infectious diseases including epidemic typhus, trench fever and louse borne recurrent fever. Recent studies suggest that body lice arose several times from head louse populations.

Methods and Findings:\ By introducing a new genotyping technique, sequencing variable intergenic spacers which were selected from louse genomic sequence, we were able to evaluate the genotypic distribution of 207 human lice. Sequence variation of two intergenic spacers, S2 and S5, discriminated the 207 lice into 148 genotypes and sequence variation of another two intergenic spacers, PM1 and PM2, discriminated 174 lice into 77 genotypes. Concatenation of the four intergenic spacers discriminated a panel of 97 lice into 96 genotypes. These intergenic spacer sequence types were relatively specific geographically, and enabled us to identify two clusters in France, one cluster in Central Africa (where a large body louse outbreak has been observed) and one cluster in Russia. Interestingly, head and body lice were not genetically differentiated.

Conclusions:\ We propose a hypothesis for the emergence of body lice, and suggest that humans with both low hygiene and head louse infestations provide an opportunity for head louse variants, able to ingest a larger blood meal (a required characteristic of body lice), to colonize clothing. If this hypothesis is ultimately supported, it would help to explain why poor human hygiene often coincides with outbreaks of body lice. Additionally, if head lice act as a reservoir for body lice, and that any social degradation in human populations may allow the formation of new populations of body lice, then head louse populations are potentially a greater threat to humans than previously assumed.

}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pntd.0000641}, url = {https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000641}, author = {Wenjun Li and Gabriel Ortiz and Pierre-Edouard Fournier and Gregory Gimenez and David L. Reed and Barry R. Pittendrigh and Didier Raoult} } @article {94788, title = {Mitochondrial diversity in human head louse populations across the Americas}, journal = {American Journal of Physical Anthropology}, volume = {152}, year = {2013}, month = {July-2013}, pages = {118 - 129}, abstract = {

Anthropological studies suggest that the genetic makeup of human populations in the Americas is the result of diverse processes including the initial colonization of the continent by the first people plus post-1492 European migrations. Because of the recent nature of some of these events, understanding the geographical origin of American human diversity is challenging. However, human parasites have faster evolutionary rates and larger population sizes allowing them to maintain greater levels of genetic diversity than their hosts. Thus, we can use human parasites to provide insights into some aspects of human evolution that may be unclear from direct evidence. In this study, we analyzed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences from 450 head lice in the Americas. Haplotypes clustered into two well-supported haplogroups, known as A and B. Haplogroup frequencies differ significantly among North, Central and South America. Within each haplogroup, we found evidence of demographic expansions around 16,000 and 20,000 years ago, which correspond broadly with those estimated for Native Americans. The parallel timing of demographic expansions of human lice and Native Americans plus the contrasting pattern between the distribution of haplogroups A and B through the Americas suggests that human lice can provide additional evidence about the human colonization of the New World

}, keywords = {human lice, human parasites, migrations, mitochondrial dna, new world}, doi = {10.1002/ajpa.22336}, url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.22336}, author = {Ascunce, Marina S. and J. Fane and G. Kassu and Toloza,Ariel Ceferino and Picollo,Mar{\'\i}a In{\'e}s and Ang{\'e}lica Gonz{\'a}lez-Oliver and David L. Reed} } @article {94787, title = {Mitochondrial Diversity of Human Head Lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) Across the Americas}, year = {2014}, abstract = {

A poster presentation of mitochondrial diversity of human head lice across Americas.\ 

Background

\•Sucking lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura) are permanent and obligate ectoparasites of eutherian mammals. These highly specialized blood-sucking insects live in close association with their hosts where they complete their entire life cycle. This relationship has led to coevolution in which parasite diversification parallels that of the host (Figure 3 of poster).

\• The human head louse has coevolved with humans over millions of years (Figure 1, Figure 2 of poster). Therefore, louse molecular data is valuable for studying the evolutionary history of lice and their human hosts.

\•Human head lice are genetically diverse and have 3 deeply divergent mitochondrial (mtDNA) clades, named A, B, and C.

\•Clothing lice (clade A) has been known to carry three bacterial pathogens. Genotypic louse data would be valuable to determine which clades of head lice have the potential to be carriers in order to combat resistance to pediculcides.

\•Previous studies suggest that the three head louse clades have different evolutionary histories. Clade A appears to be uniquely linked to its Homo sapiens host (modern humans). Clade B, however, appears to have evolved on an archaic hominin in Europe (possibly H. neanderthalensis) and later switched to modern H. sapiens. Clade C appears to have evolved on an archaic hominin in Asia (possibly H. erectus) or Africa.

}, keywords = {Americas, head lice, mitochondrial}, url = {https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/21/2017/03/fane_head-lice.pdf}, author = {J. Fane and Ascunce, Marina S. and G. Kassu and Toloza,Ariel Ceferino and Picollo,Mar{\'\i}a In{\'e}s and Ang{\'e}lica Gonz{\'a}lez-Oliver and David L. Reed} } @article {94784, title = {Geographic Distributions and Origins of Human Head Lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) Based on Mitochondrial Data}, journal = {Journal of Parasitology}, volume = {94}, year = {2008}, month = {12-2008}, pages = {1275 - 1281}, abstract = {

Human head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) are subdivided into 3 deeply divergent mitochondrial clades (Clades A, B, and C), each having unique geographical distributions. Determining the evolutionary history and geographic distribution of these mitochondrial clades can elucidate the evolutionary history of the lice as well as their human hosts. Previous data suggest that lice belonging to mitochondrial Clade B may have originated in North America or Asia; however, geographic sampling and sample sizes have been limited. With newly collected lice, we calculate the relative frequency, geographic distribution, and genetic diversity of louse mitochondrial clades to determine the geographic origin of lice belonging to Clade B. In agreement with previous studies, genetic diversity data support a North American origin of Clade B lice. It is likely that lice belonging to this mitochondrial clade recently migrated to other geographic localities, e.g., Europe and Australia, and, if not already present, may disperse further to occupy all geographic regions.

}, issn = {0022-3395}, doi = {10.1645/GE-1618.1}, url = {http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1645/GE-1618.1}, author = {Jessica E. Light and Julie M. Allen and Lauren M. Long and Tamar E. Carter and Lisa Barrow and Ganbold Suren and Didier Raoult and David L. Reed} } @article {94608, title = {Origin of Clothing Lice Indicates Early Clothing Use by Anatomically Modern Humans in Africa}, journal = {Molecular Biology and Evolution}, volume = {28}, year = {2011}, month = {Spet 2011}, pages = {29 - 32}, abstract = {

Clothing use is an important modern behavior that contributed to the successful expansion of humans into higher latitudes and cold climates. Previous research suggests that clothing use originated anywhere between 40,000 and 3 Ma, though there is little direct archaeological, fossil, or genetic evidence to support more specific estimates. Since clothing lice evolved from head louse ancestors once humans adopted clothing, dating the emergence of clothing lice may provide more specific estimates of the origin of clothing use. Here, we use a Bayesian coalescent modeling approach to estimate that clothing lice diverged from head louse ancestors at least by 83,000 and possibly as early as 170,000 years ago. Our analysis suggests that the use of clothing likely originated with anatomically modern humans in Africa and reinforces a broad trend of modern human developments in Africa during the Middle to Late Pleistocene.

}, keywords = {Human evolution, isolation with migration., lice}, issn = {0737-4038}, doi = {10.1093/molbev/msq234}, url = {https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/molbev/msq234}, author = {Toups,M. A. and Andrea Kitchen and Jessica E. Light and David L. Reed} } @article {94425, title = {Primates, Lice and Bacteria: Speciation and Genome Evolution in the Symbionts of Hominid Lice}, journal = {Molecular Biology and Evolution}, volume = {34}, year = {2017}, month = {Dec-30-2017}, pages = {1743 - 1757}, abstract = {

Insects with restricted diets rely on symbiotic bacteria to provide essential metabolites missing in their diet. The blood- sucking lice are obligate, host-specific parasites of mammals and are themselves host to symbiotic bacteria. In human lice, these bacterial symbionts supply the lice with B-vitamins. Here, we sequenced the genomes of symbiotic and heritable bacterial of human, chimpanzee, gorilla, and monkey lice and used phylogenomics to investigate their evolutionary relationships. We find that these symbionts have a phylogenetic history reflecting the louse phylogeny, a finding contrary to previous reports of symbiont replacement. Examination of the highly reduced symbiont genomes (0.53\–0.57 Mb) reveals much of the genomes are dedicated to vitamin synthesis. This is unchanged in the smallest symbiont genome and one that appears to have been reorganized. Specifically, symbionts from human lice, chimpanzee lice, and gorilla lice carry a small plasmid that encodes synthesis of vitamin B5, a vitamin critical to the bacteria-louse symbiosis. This plasmid is absent in an old world monkey louse symbiont, where this pathway is on its primary chromosome. This suggests the unique genomic configuration brought about by the plasmid is not essential for symbiosis, but once obtained, it has persisted for up to 25 My. We also find evidence that human, chimpanzee, and gorilla louse endosymbionts have lost a pathway for synthesis of vitamin B1, whereas the monkey louse symbiont has retained this pathway. It is unclear whether these changes are adaptive, but they may point to evolutionary responses of louse symbionts to shifts in primate biology.

}, keywords = {Ca. Riesia, endosymbiont replacement, pantothenate, plasmid., thiamin}, issn = {0737-4038}, doi = {10.1093/molbev/msx117}, url = {https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/34/7/1743/3098420}, author = {Boyd, Bret M. and Julie M. Allen and Nam-phuong Nguyen and Pranjal Vachaspati and Zachary S. Quicksall and Tandy Warnow and Lawrence Mugisha and Kevin P. Johnson and David L. Reed} } @article {94424, title = {Genome Sequence of Candidatus Riesia pediculischaeffi, Endosymbiont of Chimpanzee Lice, and Genomic Comparison of Recently Acquired Endosymbionts from Human and Chimpanzee Lice}, journal = {G3: Genes|Genomes|Genetics}, volume = {4}, year = {2014}, month = {Feb-15-2014}, pages = {2189 - 2195}, abstract = {

The obligate-heritable endosymbionts of insects possess some of the smallest known bacterial genomes. This is likely due to loss of genomic material during symbiosis. The mode and rate of this erosion may change over evolutionary time; faster in newly formed associations and slower in long-established ones. The endosymbionts of human and anthropoid primate lice present a unique opportunity to study genome erosion in newly established (or young) symbionts. This is because we have a detailed phylogenetic history of these endosymbionts with divergence dates for closely related species. This allows for genome evolution to be studied in detail and rates of change to be estimated in a phylogenetic framework. Here we sequenced the genome of the chimpanzee louse endosymbiont (Candidatus Riesia pediculischaeffi) and compared it to the closely related genome of the human body louse endosymbiont. From this comparison we found evidence for recent genome erosion leading to gene loss in these endosymbionts. While gene loss was detected, it was not significantly higher than in older endosymbionts from aphids and ants. Additionally, we searched for genes associated with B-vitamin synthesis in the two louse endosymbiont genomes because these endosymbionts are believed to synthesize essential B-vitamins absent in the louse\&$\#$39;s diet. All of the expected genes were present, except those involved in thiamin synthesis. We failed to find genes encoding for proteins involved in the biosynthesis of thiamin or any exogenous means of salvaging thiamin, suggesting there is an undescribed mechanism for the salvage of thiamin. Finally, genes encoding for the pantothenate de novo biosynthesis pathway were located on a plasmid in both taxa along with a heat shock protein. Movement of these genes onto a plasmid may be functionally and evolutionarily significant, potentially increasing production and guarding against the deleterious effects of mutation. These data add to a growing resource of obligate endosymbiont genomes and to our understanding of the rate and mode of genome erosion in obligate animal-associated bacteria. Ultimately sequencing additional louse p-endosymbiont genomes will provide a model system for studying genome evolution in obligate host associated bacteria.

}, keywords = {gamma-proteobacteria, Gene loss, genome erosion, primary-endosymbiont}, doi = {10.1534/g3.114.012567}, url = {http://g3journal.org/lookup/doi/10.1534/g3.114.012567}, author = {Boyd, Bret M. and Julie M. Allen and de Cr{\'e}cy-Lagard, Val{\'e}rie and David L. Reed} } @article {94423, title = {Taxonomy of lice and their endosymbiotic bacteria in the post-genomic era}, journal = {Clinical Microbiology and Infection}, volume = {18}, year = {2012}, month = {Jan-04-2012}, pages = {324 - 331}, abstract = {

Recent studies of molecular and genomic data from the parasitic lice of birds and mammals, as well as their mutualistic endosymbiotic bacteria, are changing the phylogenetic relationships and taxonomy of these organisms. Phylogenetic studies of lice suggest that verte- brate parasitism arose multiple times from free-living book and bark lice. Molecular clocks show that the major families of lice arose in the late Mesozoic and radiated in the early Cenozoic, following the radiation of mammals and birds. The recent release of the human louse genome has provided new opportunities for research. The genome is being used to find new genetic markers for phylogenetics and population genetics, to understand the complex evolutionary relationships of mitochondrial genes, and to study genome evolution. Genomes are informing us not only about lice, but also about their obligate endosymbiotic bacteria. In contrast to lice and their hosts, lice and their endosymbionts do not share common evolutionary histories, suggesting that endosymbionts are either replaced over time or that there are multiple independent origins of symbiosis in lice. Molecular phylogenetics and whole genome sequencing have recently provided the first insights into the phylogenetic placement and metabolic characteristics of these distantly related bacteria. Comparative genomics between distantly related louse symbionts can provide insights into conserved metabolic functions and can help to explain how distantly related species are fulfilling their role as mutualistic symbionts. In lice and their endosymbionts, molecular data and gen- ome sequencing are driving our understanding of evolutionary relationships and classification, and will for the foreseeable future.

}, keywords = {Insecta, Liposcelidae, Proteobacteria, Riesia}, issn = {1198743X}, doi = {10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03782.x}, url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1198743X14614427}, author = {Boyd, Bret M. and David L. Reed} } @article {94409, title = {Phylogenomics from Whole Genome Sequences Using aTRAM}, journal = {Systematic Biology}, volume = {66}, year = {2017}, month = {Jan-01-2019}, pages = {786-798}, abstract = {

Abstract.\—Novel sequencing technologies are rapidly expanding the size of data sets that can be applied to phylogenetic studies. Currently the most commonly used phylogenomic approaches involve some form of genome reduction. While these approaches make assembling phylogenomic data sets more economical for organisms with large genomes, they reduce the genomic coverage and thereby the long-term utility of the data. Currently, for organisms with moderate to small genomes (\<1000 Mbp) it is feasible to sequence the entire genome at modest coverage (10\−30\×). Computational challenges for handling these large data sets can be alleviated by assembling targeted reads, rather than assembling the entire genome, to produce a phylogenomic data matrix. Here we demonstrate the use of automated Target Restricted Assembly Method (aTRAM) to assemble 1107 single-copy ortholog genes from whole genome sequencing of sucking lice (Anoplura) and out-groups. We developed a pipeline to extract exon sequences from the aTRAM assemblies by annotating them with respect to the original target protein. We aligned these protein sequences with the inferred amino acids and then performed phylogenetic analyses on both the concatenated matrix of genes and on each gene separately in a coalescent analysis. Finally, we tested the limits of successful assembly in aTRAM by assembling 100 genes from close- to distantly related taxa at high to low levels of coverage.
Both the concatenated analysis and the coalescent-based analysis produced the same tree topology, which was consistent with previously published results and resolved weakly supported nodes. These results demonstrate that this approach is successful at developing phylogenomic data sets from raw genome sequencing reads. Further, we found that with coverages above 5\−10\×, aTRAM was successful at assembling 80\–90\% of the contigs for both close and distantly related taxa. As sequencing costs continue to decline, we expect full genome sequencing will become more feasible for a wider array of organisms, and aTRAM will enable mining of these genomic data sets for an extensive variety of applications, including phylogenomics.

}, keywords = {aTRAM; gene assembly; genome sequencing; phylogenomics.}, issn = {1063-5157}, doi = {10.1093/sysbio/syw105}, url = {https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/sysbio/syw105}, author = {Julie M. Allen and Boyd, Bret M. and Nam-phuong Nguyen and Pranjal Vachaspati and Tandy Warnow and Huang, Daisie I and Patrick G.S. Grady and Kayce C. Bell and Cronk, Quentin C and Lawrence Mugisha and Barry R. Pittendrigh and Mar{\'\i}a Soledad Leonardi and David L. Reed and Kevin P. Johnson} } @article {94338, title = {Two Bacterial Genera, Sodalis and Rickettsia, Associated with the Seal Louse Proechinophthirus fluctus (Phthiraptera: Anoplura)}, journal = {Applied and Environmental Microbiology}, volume = {82}, year = {2016}, month = {June 2016}, pages = {3185 - 3197}, abstract = {

Roughly 10\% to 15\% of insect species host heritable symbiotic bacteria known as endosymbionts. The lice parasitizing mammals rely on endosymbionts to provide essential vitamins absent in their blood meals. Here, we describe two bacterial associates from a louse, Proechinophthirus fluctus, which is an obligate ectoparasite of a marine mammal. One of these is a heritable endosymbi- ont that is not closely related to endosymbionts of other mammalian lice. Rather, it is more closely related to endosymbionts of the genus Sodalis associated with spittlebugs and feather-chewing bird lice. Localization and vertical transmission of this endo- symbiont are also more similar to those of bird lice than to those of other mammalian lice. The endosymbiont genome appears to be degrading in symbiosis; however, it is considerably larger than the genomes of other mammalian louse endosymbionts. These patterns suggest the possibility that this Sodalis endosymbiont might be recently acquired, replacing a now-extinct, an- cient endosymbiont. From the same lice, we also identified an abundant bacterium belonging to the genus Rickettsia that is closely related to Rickettsia ricketsii, a human pathogen vectored by ticks. No obvious masses of the Rickettsia bacterium were observed in louse tissues, nor did we find any evidence of vertical transmission, so the nature of its association remains unclear.

}, keywords = {endosymbionts, Rickettsia, seal, Sodalis, symbiotic bacteria}, issn = {0099-2240}, doi = {10.1128/AEM.00282-16}, url = {http://aem.asm.org/lookup/doi/10.1128/AEM.00282-16https://syndication.highwire.org/content/doi/10.1128/AEM.00282-16}, author = {Boyd, Bret M. and Julie M. Allen and Koga,Ryuichi and Fukatsu,Takema and Andrew D. Sweet and Kevin P. Johnson and David L. Reed}, editor = {H. Goodrich-Blair} } @inbook {68985, title = {The study of primate evolution from a lousy perspective}, booktitle = {Parasite Diversity and Diversification: Evolutionary Ecology Meets Phylogenetics}, year = {2015}, pages = {202 - 214}, publisher = {Cambridge University Press}, organization = {Cambridge University Press}, chapter = {10}, address = {Cambridge}, isbn = {9781107037656}, issn = {Online: 9781139794749}, doi = {10.1017/CBO978113979474910.1017/CBO9781139794749.014}, url = {http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ref/id/CBO9781139794749}, author = {David L. Reed and Julie M. Allen and Toups,M. A. and Boyd, Bret M. and Ascunce, Marina S.}, editor = {Serge Morand and Boris R. Krasnov and Littlewood, D. Timothy J.} } @article {68788, title = {Rates of genomic divergence in humans, chimpanzees and their lice}, journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences}, volume = {281}, year = {2014}, month = {Jan-08-2014}, abstract = {

The rate of DNA mutation and divergence is highly variable across the tree of life. However, the reasons underlying this variation are not well understood. Comparing the rates of genetic changes between hosts and parasite lineages that diverged at the same time is one way to begin to understand differences in genetic mutation and substitution rates. Such studies have indicated that the rate of genetic divergence in parasites is often faster than that of their hosts when comparing single genes. However, the variation in this relative rate of molecular evolution across different genes in the genome is unknown. We compared the rate of DNA sequence divergence between humans, chim- panzees and their ectoparasitic lice for 1534 protein-coding genes across their genomes. The rate of DNA substitution in these orthologous genes was on average 14 times faster for lice than for humans and chimpanzees. In addition, these rates were positively correlated across genes. Because this correlation only occurred for substitutions that changed the amino acid, this pattern is probably produced by similar functional constraints across the same genes in humans, chimpanzees and their ectoparasites.

}, keywords = {coevolution, genomics, hosts and parasites, molecular evolution, Pediculus}, issn = {0962-8452}, doi = {10.1098/rspb.2013.2174}, url = {http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/cgi/doi/10.1098/rspb.2013.2174}, author = {Kevin P. Johnson and Julie M. Allen and Olds, B. P. and Lawrence Mugisha and David L. Reed and Paige, K. N. and Barry R. Pittendrigh} } @article {68774, title = {Variable Microsatellite Loci for Population Genetic Analysis of Old World Monkey Lice (Pedicinus sp.)}, journal = {Journal of Parasitology}, volume = {98}, year = {2012}, month = {10/2012}, pages = {930 - 937}, abstract = {

Parasitic lice have been valuable informants of their host\&$\#$39;s evolutionary history because they complete their entire life cycle on the host and move between hosts primarily through direct host-to-host contact. Therefore, lice are confined to their hosts both in ecological and evolutionary time. Lice on great apes have been studied to examine details of their host\&$\#$39;s evolutionary history; however, species of Pedicinus, which parasitize the Old World monkeys, are less well known. We sampled lice from 2 groups of red colobus (Procolobus spp.) in Kibale National Park in Uganda and from red colobus and black and white colobus (Procolobus polycomos) in Ta\ï National Park in C\ôte d\&$\#$39;Ivoire. We used next-generation sequencing data analysis and the human body louse (Pediculus humanus humanus) genome to search for microsatellites for population genetic studies of Pedicinus lice. The 96 primer sets for microsatellite loci designed from the human body louse genome failed to amplify microsatellites in Pedicinus sp., perhaps due to the fast rate of evolution in parasitic lice. Of 63 microsatellites identified by next-generation sequencing data analysis of Pedicinus sp., 12 were variable among populations and 9 were variable within a single population. Our results suggest that these loci will be useful across the genus Pedicinus. We found that the lice in Uganda are not structured according to their hosts\&$\#$39; social group; rather, 2 non-interbreeding populations of lice were found on both groups of red colobus. Because direct host-to-host contact is usually required for lice to move among hosts, these lice could be useful for identification and study of behavioral interactions between primate species.

}, issn = {0022-3395}, doi = {10.1645/GE-3060.1}, url = {http://phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/68774.pdf}, author = {Scholl, Katlyn and Julie M. Allen and Leendertz, Fabian H. and Chapman, Colin A. and David L. Reed} } @article {48442, title = {Multigene analysis of phylogenetic relationships and divergence times of primate sucking lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura)}, journal = {Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution}, volume = {50}, year = {2009}, month = {2009}, pages = {376 - 390}, abstract = {

Cospeciation between hosts and parasites offers a unique opportunity to use information from parasites to infer events in host evolutionary history. Although lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) are known to cospeciate with their hosts and have frequently served as important markers to infer host evolutionary history, most molecular studies are based on only one or two markers. Resulting phylogenies may, therefore, represent gene histories (rather than species histories), and analyses of multiple molecular markers are needed to increase confidence in the results of phylogenetic analyses. Herein, we phylogenetically examine nine molecular markers in primate sucking lice (Phthiraptera: Anoplura) and we use these markers to estimate divergence times among louse lineages. Individual and combined analyses of these nine markers are, for the most part, congruent, supporting relationships hypothesized in previous studies. Only one marker, the nuclear protein-coding gene Histone 3, has a significantly different tree topology compared to the other markers. The disparate evolutionary history of this marker, however, has no significant effect on topology or nodal support in the combined phylogenetic analyses. Therefore, phylogenetic results from the combined data set likely represent a solid hypothesis of species relationships. Additionally, we find that simultaneous use of multiple markers and calibration points provides the most reliable estimates of louse divergence times, in agreement with previous studies estimating divergences among species. Estimates of phylogenies and divergence times also allow us to verify the results of [Reed, D.L., Light, J.E., Allen, J.M., Kirchman, J.J., 2007. Pair of lice lost or parasites regained: the evolutionary history of anthropoid primate lice. BMC Biol. 5, 7.]; there was probable contact between gorilla and archaic hominids roughly 3 Ma resulting in a host switch of Pthirus lice from gorillas to archaic hominids. Thus, these results provide further evidence that data from cospeciating organisms can yield important information about the evolutionary history of their hosts

}, doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2008.10.023}, url = {https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19027083}, author = {Jessica E. Light and David L. Reed} } @article {48294, title = {Phylogenetic analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial genes supports species groups for Columbicola (Insecta: Phthiraptera)}, journal = {Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution}, volume = {45}, year = {2007}, month = {2007}, pages = {506 - 518}, abstract = {

The dove louse genus Columbicola has become a model system for studying the interface between microevolutionary processes and macroevolutionary patterns. This genus of parasitic louse (Phthiraptera) contains 80 described species placed into 24 species groups. Samples of Columbicola representing 49 species from 78 species of hosts were obtained and sequenced for mitochondrial (COI and 12S) and nuclear (EF-1a) genes. We included multiple representatives from most host species for a total of 154 individual Columbicola, the largest molecular phylogenetic study of a genus of parasitic louse to date. These sequences revealed considerable divergence within several widespread species of lice, and in some cases these species were paraphyletic. These divergences correlated with host association, indicating the potential for cryptic species in several of these widespread louse species. Both parsimony and Bayesian maximum likelihood phylogenetic analyses of these sequences support monophyly for nearly all the non-monotypic species groups included in this study. These trees also revealed considerable structure with respect to biogeographic region and host clade association. These patterns indicated that switching of parasites between host clades is limited by biogeographic proximity.

}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/47437.pdf}, author = {Kevin P. Johnson and David L. Reed and Hammond Parker,Shaless L. and Kim,Dukgun and Clayton,Dale H.} } @article {48248, title = {Molecular Identification of Lice from Pre-Columbian Mummies}, journal = {Journal of Infectious Diseases}, volume = {197}, year = {2008}, month = {2008}, pages = {535 - 543}, abstract = {

Background. Three distinctly different lineages of head and body lice are known to parasitize humans. One lineage includes head and body lice and is currently worldwide in distribution (type A). The other 2 (types B and C) include only head lice and are geographically restricted. It was hypothesized that head louse phylotypes were exchanged only recently, after European exploration and colonization (after Columbus).Methods. To determine which louse type or types were found in the Americas before European colonization, we used polymerase chain reaction in 2 laboratories to amplify DNA from 2 genes (Cytb and Cox1) belonging to 1000-year-old lice collected from Peruvian mummies. Results. Only the worldwide type (type A) was found. Therefore, this phylotype was worldwide before European colonization, as type A lice were common in Europe, Africa, and Asia. Conclusions. The findings of this study show that several phylotypes of head lice have coexisted for centuries in humans and support the claim that type A lice were present in the Americas before the time of Columbus.

}, url = {https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/47390.pdf}, author = {Didier Raoult and David L. Reed and Katharina Dittmar de la Cruz and Kirchman,Jeremy J. and Jean-Marc Rolain and Guillen,Sonia and Jessica E. Light} } @article {48195, title = {What{\textquoteright}s in a name: The taxonomic status of human head and body lice}, journal = {Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution}, year = {2008}, month = {2008}, abstract = {

Human head lice (Anoplura: Pediculidae: Pediculus) are pandemic, parasitizing countless school children worldwide due to the evolution of insecticide resistance, and human body (clothing) lice are responsible for the deaths of millions as a result of vectoring several deadly bacterial pathogens. Despite the obvious impact these lice have had on their human hosts, it is unclear whether head and body lice represent two morphological forms of a single species or two distinct species. To assess the taxonomic status of head and body lice, we provide a synthesis of publicly available molecular data in GenBank, and we compare phylogenetic and population genetic methods using the most diverse geographic and molecular sampling presently available. Our analyses find reticulated networks, gene flow, and a lack of reciprocal monophyly, all of which indicate that head and body lice do not represent genetically distinct evolutionary units. Based on these findings, as well as inconsistencies of morphological, behavioral, and ecological variability between head and body lice, we contend that no known species concept would recognize these louse morphotypes as separate species. We recommend recognizing head and body lice as morphotypes of a single species, Pediculus humanus, until compelling new data and analyses (preferably analyses of fast evolving nuclear markers in a coalescent framework) indicate otherwise

}, doi = {doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.03.014}, url = {http://www.jessicalight.org/uploads/7/6/1/4/76148563/lightmpe2008.pdf}, author = {Jessica E. Light and Toups,M. A. and David L. Reed} } @article {47744, title = {Evolutionary Relationships of "Candidatus Riesia spp.," Endosymbiotic Enterobacteriaceae Living within Hematophagous Primate Lice}, journal = {Applied and Environmental Microbiology}, volume = {73}, year = {2007}, month = {2007}, pages = {1659 - 1664}, abstract = {

The primary endosymbiotic bacteria from three species of parasitic primate lice were characterized molecularly. We have confirmed the characterization of the primary endosymbiont (P-endosymbiont) of the human head/body louse Pediculus humanus and provide new characterizations of the P-endosymbionts from Pediculus schaeffi from chimpanzees and Pthirus pubis, the pubic louse of humans. The endosymbionts show an average percent sequence divergence of 11 to 15\% from the most closely related known bacterium \"Candidatus Arsenophonus insecticola.\" We propose that two additional species be added to the genus \"Candidatus Riesia.\" The new species proposed within \"Candidatus Riesia\" have sequence divergences of 3.4\% and 10 to 12\% based on uncorrected pairwise differences. Our Bayesian analysis shows that the branching pattern for the primary endosymbionts was the same as that for their louse hosts, suggesting a long coevolutionary history between primate lice and their primary endosymbionts. We used a calibration of 5.6 million years to date the divergence between endosymbionts from human and chimpanzee lice and estimated an evolutionary rate of nucleotide substitution of 0.67\% per million years, which is 15 to 30 times faster than previous estimates calculated for Buchnera, the primary endosymbiont in aphids. Given the evidence for cospeciation with primate lice and the evidence for fast evolutionary rates, this lineage of endosymbiotic bacteria can be evaluated as a fast-evolving marker of both louse and primate evolutionary histories.

}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/46874.pdf}, author = {Julie M. Allen and David L. Reed and Perotti,M. Alejandra and Braig,Henk R.} } @conference {47736, title = {Of lice and men: The use of host specific parasites to infer host evolutionary history}, year = {2006}, month = {2006}, abstract = {

Host specific parasites, such as lice, occasionally undergo long-term coevolution with their hosts. In these coevolving assemblages it is often possible to infer the evolutionary history of the host simply by observing the phylogeny of the parasite. For example, human lice diverged from chimp lice approximately 5-6 million years ago. Similarly, human lice show the telltale signs of a rapid population expansion out-of-Africa 100,000 years ago. More importantly, these host specific parasites might be able to inform us about portions of their host�s evolutionary history that is obscured in host DNA. Herein I present recent data from the study of primates and their ectoparasitic sucking lice, which shed light on events such as the origin of modernization in humans as well as recent events such as the peopling of the Americas.

}, author = {David L. Reed} } @article {47743, title = {Host-symbiont interaction of the primary endosymbiont of human head and body lice}, journal = {The FASEB Journal}, volume = {21}, year = {2007}, month = {2007}, pages = {1058 - 1066}, abstract = {

The first mycetome was discovered more than 340 yr ago in the human louse. Despite the remarkable biology and medical and social importance of human lice, its primary endosymbiont has eluded identification and characterization. Here, we report the host-symbiont interaction of the mycetomic bacterium of the head louse Pediculus humanus capitis and the body louse P. h. humanus. The endosymbiont represents a new bacterial lineage in the -Proteobacteria. Its closest sequenced relative is Arsenophonus nasoniae, from which it differs by more than 10\%. A. nasoniae is a male-killing endosymbiont of jewel wasps. Using microdissection and multiphoton confocal microscopy, we show the remarkable interaction of this bacterium with its host. This endosymbiont is unique because it occupies sequentially four different mycetomes during the development of its host, undergoes three cycles of proliferation, changes in length from 2\–4 \µm to more than 100 \µm, and has two extracellular migrations, during one of which the endosymbionts have to outrun its host\’s immune cells. The host and its symbiont have evolved one of the most complex interactions: two provisional or transitory mycetomes, a main mycetome and a paired filial mycetome. Despite the close relatedness of body and head lice, differences are present in the mycetomic provisioning and the immunological response.

}, url = {https://faseb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1096/fj.06-6808com}, author = {Perotti,M. Alejandra and Julie M. Allen and David L. Reed and Braig,Henk R.} } @article {47676, title = {Pair of lice lost or parasites regained: the evolutionary history of anthropoid primate lice}, journal = {Biomedcentral Biology}, volume = {5}, year = {2007}, month = {2007}, pages = {7}, abstract = {

Background: The parasitic sucking lice of primates are known to have undergone at least 25 million years of coevolution with their hosts. For example, chimpanzee lice and human head/body lice last shared a common ancestor roughly six million years ago, a divergence that is contemporaneous with their hosts. In an assemblage where lice are often highly host specific, humans host two different genera of lice, one that is shared with chimpanzees and another that is shared with gorillas. In this study, we reconstruct the evolutionary history of primate lice and infer the historical events that explain the current distribution of these lice on their primate hosts.RESULTS: Phylogenetic and cophylogenetic analyses suggest that the louse genera Pediculus and Pthirus are each monophyletic, and are sister taxa to one another. The age of the most recent common ancestor of the two Pediculus species studied matches the age predicted by host divergence (ca. 6 million years), whereas the age of the ancestor of Pthirus does not. The two species of Pthirus (Pthirus gorillae and Pthirus pubis) last shared a common ancestor ca. 3-4 million years ago, which is considerably younger than the divergence between their hosts (gorillas and humans, respectively), of approximately 7 million years ago. CONCLUSIONS: Reconciliation analysis determines that there are two alternative explanations that account for the current distribution of anthropoid primate lice. The more parsimonious of the two solutions suggests that a Pthirus species switched from gorillas to humans. This analysis assumes that the divergence between Pediculus and Pthirus was contemporaneous with the split (i.e., a node of cospeciation) between gorillas and the lineage leading to chimpanzees and humans. Divergence date estimates, however, show that the nodes in the host and parasite trees are not contemporaneous. Rather, the shared coevolutionary history of the anthropoid primates and their lice contains a mixture of evolutionary events including cospeciation, parasite duplication, parasite extinction, and host switching. Based on these data, the coevolutionary history of primates and their lice has been anything but parsimonious.

}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/46801.pdf}, author = {David L. Reed and Jessica E. Light and Julie M. Allen and Kirchman,Jeremy J.} } @inbook {47076, title = {Cophylogeny between pocket gophers and chewing lice}, booktitle = {Tangled trees: phylogeny, cospeciation and coevolution}, year = {2003}, note = {draft manuscript}, month = {2003}, pages = {195 - 220}, publisher = {University of Chicago Press}, organization = {University of Chicago Press}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/46177.pdf}, author = {Mark S. Hafner and James W. Demastes and Theresa A. Spradling and David L. Reed}, editor = {Page,Roderic D. M.} } @article {47029, title = {Risk that websites could break code of anonymity}, journal = {Nature}, volume = {413}, year = {2001}, month = {2001}, pages = {347}, keywords = {anonymity, manuscript, peer review}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/46114.pdf}, author = {David L. Reed and Brett R. Moyer and Clayton,Dale H.} } @article {45159, title = {Genetic analysis of lice supports direct contact between modern and archaic humans}, journal = {Public Library of Science Biology}, volume = {2}, year = {2004}, month = {2004}, pages = {1972 - 1983}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/8685.pdf}, author = {David L. Reed and Vincent Stuart Smith and Hammond,Shaless L. and Rogers,Alan R. and Clayton,Dale H.} } @article {45160, title = {Did we or didn{\textquoteright}t we? Louse genetic analysis say yes}, journal = {PLOS Biology}, volume = {2}, year = {2004}, month = {2004}, pages = {e378}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/8686.pdf}, author = {David L. Reed and Vincent Stuart Smith and Hammond,Shaless L. and Rogers,Alan R. and Clayton,Dale H.} } @article {43309, title = {Phylogenetic analysis of bacterial communities associated with ectoparasitic chewing lice of pocket gophers: A culture-independent approach}, journal = {Microbial Ecology}, volume = {44}, year = {2002}, month = {2002}, pages = {78 - 93}, abstract = {

This study identifies the bacteria associated with ectoparasitic chewing lice that live in the fur of pocket gophers. Samples of chewing lice were collected from pocket gopher hosts in Florida, Missouri, New Mexico, and Costa Rica. We used a molecular sampling method whereby total community DNA was extracted from samples of chewing lice, and PCR was used to selectively amplify small-subunit rRNA genes from bacteria. This culture-independent method yielded ca. 35 distinct lineages representing eight widely divergent groups within the domain Bacteria. Phylogenetic analysis of two lineages (Acinetobacter and Staphylococcus) provides evidence that multiple species of each group are found in chewing lice. Phylogenetic analysis also demon-strated that diversication within chewing lice may be evident in both Acinetobacter and Staphylococcus. Some clones amplified from chewing louse hosts appeared to be distinct from known species of Acinetobacter and Staphylococcus. This diversication may be the result of the extreme isolation of populations of both chewing lice and their pocket gopher hosts.

}, keywords = {bacteria}, url = {https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/6678.pdf}, author = {David L. Reed and Mark S. Hafner} } @article {40342, title = {Host specificity of chewing lice on pocket gophers: a potential mechanism for cospeciation}, journal = {Journal of Mammalogy}, volume = {78}, year = {1997}, month = {1997}, pages = {655 - 660}, abstract = {

Pocket gophers (Rodentia: Geomyidae) and their ectoparasitic chewing lice (Phthiraptera Trichodectidae) have congruent phylogenies and show evidence of cospeciation. We examined a potential mechanism that could generate the observed pattern of cospeciation by testing the ability of lice to survive and reproduce on hosts other than their own. Our tests were conducted at the subspecific, specific, and generic levels relative to the natural host. Although lice established successful colonies at each level, colonization of new hosts diminished with increasing phylogenetic distance from the natural host of each louse. We suggest that the pattern of cospeciation results primarily from lack of opportunity for lice to colonize new hosts. However, in rare cases where lice disperse to new hosts, survival may be difficult on hosts that are not closely related to the natural host, which would reinforce the pattern of cospeciation.

}, keywords = {Chewing lice, cladistic analysis, cospeciation, Evolution, Geomyidae, gopher, host, lice, molecular, parasite, Phthiraptera, pocket, specificity, trichodectidae}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/3072.pdf}, author = {David L. Reed and Mark S. Hafner} } @article {39807, title = {Spatial partitioning of host habitat by chewing lice of the genera Geomydoecus and Thomomydoecus (Phthiraptera: Trichodectidae)}, journal = {Journal of Parasitology}, volume = {86}, year = {2000}, month = {2000}, pages = {951 - 955}, abstract = {

Chewing lice, Geomydoecus and Thomomydoecus, coexist on pocket gophers, Thomomys spp. We investigated the spatial distribution of the 2 genera on their hosts and explored possible mechanisms of resource partitioning by chewing lice. Chewing lice appear to partition available host resources spatially, with Geomydoecus occurring primarily on the lateral and dorsal regions of the host, and Thomomydoecus occurring primarily on the lateral and ventral regions. Although spatial partitioning of the host habitat is evident, it does not appear to be explained by hair diameter. Spatial partitioning of the host\&$\#$39;s body could be the result of some other factor, possibly temperature or humidity gradients of the host\&$\#$39;s body.

}, keywords = {cospeciation, gopher, parasite, pocket}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/2262.pdf}, author = {David L. Reed and Mark S. Hafner and Allen,Shannon K. and Smith,Melanie B.} } @article {39806, title = {Mammalian hair diameter as a possible mechanism for host specialization in chewing lice}, journal = {Journal of Mammalogy}, volume = {81}, year = {2000}, month = {2000}, pages = {999 - 1007}, abstract = {

We examined the relationship between mammalian hair diameter and body mass at several taxonomic levels (interordinal, intrafamilial, intrageneric, and intraspecific) and showed a significant, positive allometric relationship between hair diameter and body size at all taxonomic levels examined. The allometric coefficient (alpha) ranged from 0.13 to 0.33. Within pocket gophers (Geomyidae), a significant positive relationship exists between hair diameter and rostral groove dimensions of their chewing lice, Geomydoecus, which use the rostral groove to grasp hairs of their host. Coupled with previous evidence of a strong allometric relationship between rostral groove width and louse body size, our findings suggest that hair diameter of the host is an important determinant of body size in chewing lice that parasitize pocket gophers.

}, keywords = {body, Evolution, Geomyidae, gopher, hair, host, independent, mass, parasite, Phthiraptera, Phylogeny, pocket, rodentia, size, trichodectidae}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/2261.pdf}, author = {David L. Reed and Mark S. Hafner and Allen,Shannon K.} } @article {39782, title = {Comparative body size relationships in pocket gophers and their chewing lice}, journal = {Biological Journal of the Linnean Society}, volume = {70}, year = {2000}, month = {2000}, pages = {239 - 249}, abstract = {

In this paper, we use the method of independent contrasts to study body size relationships between pocket gophers and their chewing lice, a host-parasite system in which both host and parasite pilylogenies are well studied. The evolution of body size of chewing lice appears to be dependent only on the body size of their hosts, which confirms the 1991 findings of Harvey and Keymer. We show that there is a positive relationship between body size and hair-shaft diameter in pocket gophers, and that there is also a positive relationship between body size and head-groove width in chewing lice. Finally, we show a positive relationship between gopher hair-shaft diameter and louse head-groove width. We postulate that changes in body size of chewing lice are driven by a mechanical relationship between the parasite\&$\#$39;s head-groove dimension and the diameter of the hairs of its host. Louse species living on larger host species may be larger simply because their hosts have thicker hairs, which requires that the lice have a wider head groove. Our study of gopher hair-shaft diameter and louse head-groove dimensions suggest that there is a \&$\#$39;lock-and-key\&$\#$39; relationship between these two anatomical features. (C) 2000 The Linnean Society of London.

}, keywords = {analysis, body, coevolution, comparative, covariation, Evolution, host, independent, life history, Nematodes, parasite, Phylogeny, size, traits}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/37965.pdf}, author = {Serge Morand and Mark S. Hafner and Page,Roderic D. M. and David L. Reed} } @mastersthesis {38799, title = {Possible mechanism for cospeciation in pocket gophers and lice, and evidence of resource partitioning among coexisting genera of lice}, volume = {M.S.c.}, year = {1994}, note = {Zoology and Physiology Department; Investigates a biological mechanim to explain cospeciation by pocket gophers (Subfamily Geomyidae) and their lice (Geomydoecus \& Thomomydoecus). The potential for habitat partitioning was explored between the two louse species hosted by the pocket gopher Thomomys bottae. These lice use a groove located at the apex of the head to secure themselves to the hair shaft of their host. He found the the groove dimensions were found to vary amoung taxa and that the diameter of pocker gopher hairs taken from different regions of the body also showed significant variation suggesting that different taxa of lice may be specialised to inhabit different regions of the hosts body and thus the a potential mecanism for resourse partitioning occurs amoung coexisting lice taxa.}, month = {1994}, pages = {74}, school = {Louisiana State University}, address = {Louisiana}, author = {David L. Reed} }