@article {68773, title = {The dilemma of conserving parasites: the case of Felicola (Lorisicola) isidoroi (Phthiraptera: Trichodectidae) and its host, the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)}, journal = {Insect Conservation and Diversity}, volume = {6}, year = {2013}, month = {Jan-11-2013}, pages = {680 - 686}, abstract = {

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1. Parasites are essential elements in healthy natural ecosystems. Also, they constitute most of the world\’s biodiversity. Therefore, they deserve to be conserved together with their hosts.
2. The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is the most endangered felid in the world because it only survives in two isolated populations in the Iberian Peninsula, with no more than 300 free-ranging individuals.
3. Felicola (Lorisicola) isodoroi is a louse exclusively parasitic on the Iberian lynx, and it appears to be scarcer and therefore more endangered than its host.
4. Current management activities devoted to the conservation of the Iberian lynx, such as reproduction in captivity for restocking, could compromise the survival of its louse species.
5. In this article we revise the ectoparasites of the Iberian lynx and discuss their potential role for transmission of pathogens.
6. Also, we propose measures which could enhance the survival of F. (L.) isidoroi.

}, keywords = {Conservation programme, ectoparasites, Felicola (Lorisicola) isidoroi, host management, Iberian lynx, parasite conservation, trichodectidae}, doi = {10.1111/icad.2013.6.issue-610.1111/icad.12021}, author = {Jes{\'u}s M. P{\'e}rez and S{\'a}nchez, I{\~n}igo and Ricardo L. Palma} } @article {47117, title = {Tricholipeurus lipeuroides (M{\'e}gin)(Mallophaga) from a white-tailed deer in Quebec}, journal = {Canadian Journal of Zoology}, volume = {42}, year = {1964}, month = {1964}, pages = {323}, keywords = {Survey, trichodectidae}, url = {http://phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/47117.pdf}, author = {Webster,W. A. and Stewart,R. C.} } @article {47116, title = {Parasite fauna of the Manitoulin Island region, I Arthropodia Parasitica}, journal = {Canadian Journal of Zoology}, volume = {40M.Sc.}, year = {1962}, month = {1962}, pages = {605 - 606}, keywords = {Anoplura, Survey, trichodectidae}, url = {http://phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/47116.pdf}, author = {Scholten,T. H. and Ronald,K. and McLean,D. M.} } @article {45305, title = {Un nuevo hospedador para Neotrichodectes chilensis Werneck, 1948 y N. wolffhuegeli (Werneck, 1936) (Mallophaga, Trichodectidae) en Argentina}, journal = {Revista de la Sociedad Entomologica Argentina}, volume = {43}, year = {1984}, month = {1984}, pages = {326}, keywords = {Argentina, mtax, Neotrichodectes, trichodectidae}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/8840.pdf}, author = {Armando Conrado Cicchino} } @article {42585, title = {Danske lus og pelslus}, journal = {Entomologiske Meddelelser}, volume = {20}, year = {1937}, note = {b; 1227}, month = {1937}, pages = {1 - 19}, keywords = {Europe, Haematopinus, Perissodactyla, trichodectidae, Troester}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/5871.pdf}, author = {Maltbaek,J.} } @article {40342, title = {Host specificity of chewing lice on pocket gophers: a potential mechanism for cospeciation}, journal = {Journal of Mammalogy}, volume = {78}, year = {1997}, month = {1997}, pages = {655 - 660}, abstract = {

Pocket gophers (Rodentia: Geomyidae) and their ectoparasitic chewing lice (Phthiraptera Trichodectidae) have congruent phylogenies and show evidence of cospeciation. We examined a potential mechanism that could generate the observed pattern of cospeciation by testing the ability of lice to survive and reproduce on hosts other than their own. Our tests were conducted at the subspecific, specific, and generic levels relative to the natural host. Although lice established successful colonies at each level, colonization of new hosts diminished with increasing phylogenetic distance from the natural host of each louse. We suggest that the pattern of cospeciation results primarily from lack of opportunity for lice to colonize new hosts. However, in rare cases where lice disperse to new hosts, survival may be difficult on hosts that are not closely related to the natural host, which would reinforce the pattern of cospeciation.

}, keywords = {Chewing lice, cladistic analysis, cospeciation, Evolution, Geomyidae, gopher, host, lice, molecular, parasite, Phthiraptera, pocket, specificity, trichodectidae}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/3072.pdf}, author = {David L. Reed and Mark S. Hafner} } @article {40272, title = {Temporal congruence revisited: comparison of mitochondrial DNA sequence divergence in cospeciating pocket gophers and their chewing lice}, journal = {Systematic Biology}, volume = {45}, year = {1996}, month = {1996}, pages = {151 - 167}, abstract = {

Molecular phylogenies can be used to test hypotheses of cospeciation between hosts and parasites by comparing both cladistic relationships and branch lengths. Molecular data can also help discriminate between competing reconstructions of the history of the host-parasite association. Methods for comparing sequence divergence in hosts and parasites are described and applied to data for pocket gophers and their chewing lice. The hypothesis of cospeciation between these two clades is strongly supported. The lengths of homologous branches in the gopher and louse phylogenies are positively correlated, but there is little support for the hypothesis that lice are evolving an order of magnitude faster than are their hosts.

}, keywords = {analysis, assemblages, Chewing lice, clock, component, cospeciation, dna, Evolution, geomydoecus, Geomyidae, Geomys, gopher, host parasite, lice, lineages, Mallophaga, molecular, Orthogeomys, Phylogeny, pocket, sequence, speciation, substitutions, thomomydoecus, thomomys, tree, trees, trichodectidae}, url = {http://oup.silverchair-cdn.com/oup/backfile/Content_public/Journal/sysbio/45/2/10.1093/sysbio/45.2.151/2/45-2-151.pdf?Expires=1485178998\&Signature=Ot51qtPL0yKCXIoYGaXyDHFhW32zncDUkaJP357f8CU5td~btGv15S2jmYH8DOK8nSGL1a66mMoOQflCg02Fs47sv~qKstzYpYsm6kbvwqnA}, author = {Page,Roderic D. M.} } @article {40069, title = {Trichodectes melis (Fabricius,J.C. 1805) (Mallophaga, Trichodectidae), a new species for the fauna of Slovakia}, journal = {Biol{\'o}gia}, volume = {46}, year = {1991}, note = {Czech Note HK294 BIOLOGIA}, month = {1991}, pages = {967 - 968}, abstract = {In parasitological studies during the period 1982-1985 the authors examined ectoparasitically 15 specimens of the badgers (Meles meles L.). The investigate material comprised 85 females and 23 males of the Chewing Badge-louse (Trichodectes melis, J. C. Fabricius, 1805). This species has up to now not been discovered in Slovakia.}, keywords = {distribution, geography, Mallophaga, Slovakia, Trichodectes, trichodectidae}, author = {Lukas,J. and Cyprich,D. and Krumpal,M.} } @article {40062, title = {Comparing life histories using phylogenies}, journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B}, volume = {332}, year = {1991}, month = {1991}, pages = {31 - 39}, abstract = {The comparative method as recently developed can be used to identify statistically independent instances of life-history evolution. When life-history traits show evidence for correlated evolutionary change with each other or with ecological differences, it is often possible to single out the trade-offs and selective forces responsible for the evolution of life-history diversity. Suites of life-history characters often evolve in concert, and recent optimality models incorporating few variables show promise for interpreting that evolution in terms of few selective forces. Because hosts provide well-defined environments for their parasites, when host-parasite phylogenies are congruent it is possible to test ideas about the evolution of particular life-history and size-related traits.}, keywords = {bird, body, coevolution, complex, food habits, Geomyidae, Mallophaga, mammal, reproduction, rodentia, size, thomomys, trichodectidae}, author = {Harvey,P. H. and Keymer,A. E.} } @article {39806, title = {Mammalian hair diameter as a possible mechanism for host specialization in chewing lice}, journal = {Journal of Mammalogy}, volume = {81}, year = {2000}, month = {2000}, pages = {999 - 1007}, abstract = {

We examined the relationship between mammalian hair diameter and body mass at several taxonomic levels (interordinal, intrafamilial, intrageneric, and intraspecific) and showed a significant, positive allometric relationship between hair diameter and body size at all taxonomic levels examined. The allometric coefficient (alpha) ranged from 0.13 to 0.33. Within pocket gophers (Geomyidae), a significant positive relationship exists between hair diameter and rostral groove dimensions of their chewing lice, Geomydoecus, which use the rostral groove to grasp hairs of their host. Coupled with previous evidence of a strong allometric relationship between rostral groove width and louse body size, our findings suggest that hair diameter of the host is an important determinant of body size in chewing lice that parasitize pocket gophers.

}, keywords = {body, Evolution, Geomyidae, gopher, hair, host, independent, mass, parasite, Phthiraptera, Phylogeny, pocket, rodentia, size, trichodectidae}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/2261.pdf}, author = {David L. Reed and Mark S. Hafner and Allen,Shannon K.} } @article {39799, title = {A new species of Felicola (Phthiraptera : Trichodectidae) from the endangered Iberian lynx: another reason to ensure its survival}, journal = {Biodiversity and Conservation}, volume = {10}, year = {2001}, month = {2001}, pages = {929 - 937}, abstract = {

A new chewing louse species, Felicola (Lorisicola) isidoroi, is described and illustrated from a male Iberian lynx, Lynx pardinus (Carnivora: Felidae) in southern Spain. Although the new species is based only on a single adult male, it was felt that the scarcity of the host and the distinctiveness of the louse warranted its description. Considering the high degree of host-specificity of this group of lice, the current conservation status of the host as the most vulnerable felid species in the world, and the low prevalence shown by the new louse, we propose the status of endangered for the louse species also. A list of parasites recorded on Lynx pardinus and other carnivore hosts from the Iberian Peninsula is given, and their host-specificity is discussed.

}, keywords = {Chewing lice, Felicola, Iberian, isidoroi, lice, Lorisicola, lynx, mtax, n.sp., parasite, PHP, sheep, soay, sp.nov., trichodectidae}, url = {http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.577.9831\&rep=rep1\&type=pdf}, author = {Jes{\'u}s M. P{\'e}rez and Ricardo L. Palma} } @article {39768, title = {Efficacy of chlorfenapyr (AC 303630) experimental pour-on and CyLence formulations against naturally acquired louse infestations on cattle in New York}, journal = {Veterinary Parasitology}, volume = {97}, year = {2001}, month = {2001}, pages = {123 - 129}, abstract = {The four chlorfenapyr formulations examined provided 100\% control of both the nymphal and adult stages of naturally acquired Bovicola bovis (L.) on cattle up to 35 days after application. Treatment with 6 mg chlorfenapyr per kg BW in a 0.12 mi per kg BW formulation was as effective as treatment with CyLence(TM) (cyfluthrin) in controlling naturally acquired Solenopotes capillatus (Enderlein) on cattle for 35 days. Percent reduction was never greater than 90\% with any chlorfenapyr application against Linognathus vituli (L.). However, percent reduction was greater than 90\% with CyLence(TM) from day 21 through 35. No adverse effects were noted on cattle from any of the chlorfenapyr dosages used. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.}, keywords = {Anoplura, Bovicola, Calves, capillatus, cattle, Chewing lice, Haematopinidae, lepidoptera, lice, Linognathus, little, longnosed, louse, Mallophaga, noctuidae, Solenopotes, susceptibility, trichodectidae}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/2196.pdf}, author = {Kaufman,P. E. and Rutz,D. A. and Doscher,M. E. and Albright,R.} } @article {39746, title = {Production and oxidation of wool grease after shearing}, journal = {Australian Veterinary Journal}, volume = {77}, year = {1999}, month = {1999}, pages = {667 - 670}, abstract = {Objective To measure the production and amount of oxidation of wool grease secreted immediately after shearing. To identify components of wool grease that might act as a carrier to facilitate lateral diffusion of topically applied insecticides. Design Fine-wool Merino sheep were shorn and residual greasy wool was collected from the sheep{\textquoteright}s flank. The quantity of grease produced, and the amount of oxidation was measured during 18 days after shearing. Wool grease was fractionated into five component groups based on their polarity and the degree of oxidation in these fractions determined. Results There was a 24\% increase in grease production within 2 days after shearing but secretions returned to pre-shearing amounts after 4 days. During this period wool grease oxidised rapidly. Of the grease fractions examined, sterol and wax esters remained essentially unoxidised whereas free sterols such as cholesterol and lanosterol, fatty acids and polar lipids, aldehydes and alcohols were extensively oxidised within 7 days after shearing. Conclusion The transient increase in grease production after shearing may facilitate diffusion of topically applied synthetic pyrethroid insecticides. Oxidation of grease components may then contain the insecticide and limit further diffusion. Incorporating the insecticide in non-oxidising fractions of wool grease may make insecticide dispersion more efficient.}, keywords = {body, Damalinia ovis, fractionation, louse, Phthiraptera, resistance, schrank, sheep, trichodectidae, wool}, author = {Darwish,A. and Hennessy,D. R. and Maxwell,C. A.} } @article {39744, title = {Monooxygenases play only a minor role in resistance to synthetic pyrethroids in the cattle tick, Boophilus microplus}, journal = {Experimental and Applied Acarology}, volume = {23}, year = {1999}, month = {1999}, pages = {897 - 905}, abstract = {

We investigated the role of monooxygenases in resistance to synthetic pyrethroids (SPs) in the cattle tick, Boophilus microplus. We found that monooxygenases play only a minor role in resistance to SPs in both resistant and susceptible strains of B. microplus. We blocked the monooxygenases with piperonyl butoxide (PBO) and simultaneously applied the SPs, flumethrin and cypermethrin to larval B. microplus. PBO increased the effect of flumethrin (synergism ratios 2.7-8.9) more than it increased the effect of cypermethrin (synergism ratios 1.9- 3.1). Of the four strains tested, Parkhurst, which is resistant to SPs, was the least affected by the addition of PBO (synergism ratios after cypermethrin was applied 1.9; after flumethrin 2.7) whereas N.R.F.S., the strain susceptible to SPs, was the most affected by synergism between PBO and SPs (synergism ratio after cypermethrin was applied 3.1; after flumethrin 8.9). We hypothesize that B. microplus lacks monooxygenases capable of conferring resistance to SPs because it and its recent ancestors were blood-feeders rather than herbivores.

}, keywords = {biochemical characterization, Blattellidae, Boophilus, housefly, insecticide, Ixodida, larva, metabolism, microplus, monooxygenases, Permethrin, Phthiraptera, resistance, schrank, strains, synthetic pyrethroid, Tick, trichodectidae}, issn = {0168-8162(print), 1572-9702(online}, doi = {10.1023/A:1006245800759}, url = {http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1006245800759}, author = {Crampton,A. L. and Green,P. and Baxter,G. D. and Stephen C. Barker} } @article {39652, title = {Avian louse phylogeny (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera): a cladistic study based morphology}, journal = {Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society}, volume = {132}, year = {2001}, month = {2001}, pages = {81 - 144}, abstract = {

The louse suborder Ischnocera (Phthiraptera) contains 3,060 currently described species from over 150 genera. These lice are permanent obligatory ectoparasites of a diverse selection of birds and mammals with a worldwide distribution. They have historically played a major role in the development of our ideas on coevolution, and species hosted by mammals have been used extensively as model organism for the study of cospeciation. In contrast, avian taxa comprising 90\% of ischnoceran species have been largely neglected due to a lack of data on their wider systematics. A comparative study of based on adult and instar morphology of avian lice yielded 138 characters from 56 species (51 genera), all of which are figured or discussed for the first time. A further five outgroup taxa were examined from the mammalian ischnoceran family Trichodectidae. Phylogenetic analyses of these data produced three most parsimonious cladograms, the strict consensus of which is highly resolved and broadly consistent with previous classifications. Morphological character variation is extensive, and nymphal character traits are essential to identify instances of convergent evolution in adult morphology. The role of ontogeny in the development of the major character complexes of the head and abdomen is discussed and its implications for further work on the phylogeny of avian Ischnocera is considered. Comparison with host taxonomy reveals a pattern that is broadly consistent with a hypothesis of cospeciation. However, host - parasite associations are complex and difficult to interpret due to the low sample size. The role of niche specialisation to explain the presence of multiple unrelated lineages on the same host taxon is considered.

}, keywords = {bird, Chewing lice, classification, coevolution, congruence, cospeciation, gopher, host, Ischnocera, lice, mtax, ontogeny, parasite, PHP, Phthiraptera, Phylogeny, pocket, selection, sexual, trichodectidae}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1006/zjls.2000.0264}, url = {https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/39652.pdf}, author = {Vincent Stuart Smith} } @article {39397, title = {Pocket gophers and chewing lice: a test of the maternal transmission hypothesis}, journal = {Molecular Ecology}, volume = {7}, year = {1998}, month = {1998}, pages = {1065 - 1069}, abstract = {

The life-history traits of pocket gophers and their chewing lice suggest that there is little opportunity for transmission of parasites among pocket gophers, with the exception of transmission from mother to offspring. Herein, we test the hypothesis that lice are transmitted maternally by using an indirect approach that compares the distribution of louse populations to the distribution of mitochondrial DNA haplotypes in the pocket gophers. Comparison of the chewing louse distributions to the distribution of mtDNA haplotypes for the gophers revealed no significant concordance, and thus falsifies the maternal transmission hypothesis.

}, keywords = {coevolution, colonization, geomydoecus, Geomyidae, host, Mallophaga, mitochondrial dna, mtDNA, parasite, populations, RFLP, thomomys bottae, trichodectidae}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/0842.pdf}, author = {James W. Demastes and Mark S. Hafner and David J. Hafner and Theresa A. Spradling} } @article {39382, title = {Two new subgenera of chewing lice (Phthiraptera: Trichodectidae) from pocket gophers (Rodentia: Geomyidae), with a key to all included taxa}, journal = {Journal of Medical Entomology}, volume = {31}, year = {1994}, month = {1994}, pages = {450-466}, type = {Proof copy of article }, abstract = {

Proof copy: The new subgenera Thaelerius and Jamespattonius are described, respectively, for the eight species of Geomydoecus in the thomomyus complex of lice and the four species of Thomomydoecus in the wardi complex. Except for T. byersi Hellenthal \& Price from Thomomys bottae (Eydoux \& Gervais), these lice are restricted to the Thomomys talpoides (Richardson) complex of pocket gophers and are the only lice found on these hosts. A key is given for the identification of the currently recognized 122 taxa of pocket gopher lice.

}, keywords = {complex, geomydoecus, mtax, PHP, thomomydoecus, trichodectidae}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/0825.pdf}, author = {Hellenthal,Ronald A. and Roger D. Price} } @article {39335, title = {Basal ischnoceran louse phylogeny (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera: Goniodidae and Heptapsogasteridae)}, journal = {Systematic Entomology}, volume = {25}, year = {2000}, month = {2000}, pages = {73 - 94}, abstract = {

A phylogenetic analysis of generic relationships for avian chewing lice of the families Goniodidae and Heptapsogasteridae (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) is presented. These lice, hosted by galliform, columbiform and tinamiform birds are reputedly basal in the phylogeny of Ischnocera. A cladistic analysis of sixty-two adult morphological characters from thirty-one taxa revealed thirty equally parsimonious trees. The phylogeny is well resolved within the Heptapsogasteridae and supports the monophyly of the subfamily Strongylocotinae (sensu Eichler, 1963). Resolution within the Goniodidae is lower but suggests that the genera hosted by Columbiformes are largely monophyletic. Mapping host taxonomy on to the phylogeny of the lice reveals a consistent pattern which is largely congruent down to the rank of host family, although at lower taxonomic levels the association appears to be more complex. The inclusion of more louse taxa may considerably help to unravel the coevolutionary history of both the hosts and their parasites.

}, keywords = {Chewing lice, cladistic analysis, classification, Evolution, gopher, host, lice, Phthiraptera, pocket, trichodectidae}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-3113.2000.00095.x}, url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1365-3113.2000.00095.x}, author = {Vincent Stuart Smith} } @article {39314, title = {Comparative ecology of neotropical bird lice (Insecta, Phthiraptera)}, journal = {Journal of Animal Ecology}, volume = {61}, year = {1992}, note = {Includes an extensive appendix describing the host associations and louse number from the Andian foothill birds of south-eastern Peru.}, month = {1992}, pages = {781 - 795}, abstract = {

1. Data are presented comprising the first quantitative survey lice from Neotropical birds. The data were collected in the Andean foothills of south-eastern Peru using a novel scheme for quantitative sampling of ectoparasites from freshly killed hosts. 2. In total, 685 birds representing 127 species in 26 families were sampled for lice; 327 (47.7\%) birds were parasitized, with a mean intensity of 6.6 lice per bird and a mean richness of 1.1 louse species per host species. 3. The bulk of variation in louse load was among host species nested within genera, although some variation occurred at higher taxonomic levels. 4. Lice were extremely host-specific; nearly all species were restricted to a single species of host (monoxenous). 5. Thirteen metapopulations of lice (10\%) had significantly skewed sex ratios, of which four were skewed toward males, representing the first male-biased sex ratios reported for chewing lice. Thirty-four metapopulations (27\%) had significantly skewed age ratios and showed an overall bias toward adults. 6. Results are discussed in relation to current life-history theory and are compared with the findings of a recent survey of lice from temperate-zone birds. Tropical lice are neither more speciose nor more abundant than temperate-zone lice, which is consistent with the view that the environment for chewing lice is delimited by the body of the host rather than by \&$\#$39;external\&$\#$39; conditions. 7. Non-quantitative host-parasite records are reported for lice collected from an additional 75 birds representing 45 species in 20 families.

}, keywords = {bird, comparative, differentiation, ecology, genetic, Ischnocera, lice, Mallophaga, Philopteridae, trichodectidae, tropical}, url = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/5631.pdf}, author = {Clayton,Dale H. and Gregory,R. D. and Roger D. Price} } @article {38831, title = {Structure and function of the male genitalia of the badger louse, Trichodectes melis (Fabricius) (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera: Trichodectidae)}, journal = {Entomologist{\textquoteright}s Monthly Magazine}, volume = {123}, year = {1987}, note = {Structure and function of male genitalia in a badger louse as well as a description of copulation.}, month = {1987}, pages = {55 - 58}, keywords = {genitalia, Ischnocera, morphology, Trichodectes, trichodectidae}, url = {http://phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/38831.pdf}, author = {Christopher Henry Coutts Lyal} } @article {38796, title = {Biosystematics of the chewing lice of pocket gophers}, journal = {Annual Review of Entomology}, volume = {36}, year = {1991}, note = {PHP;; Basically a review of the pocket gophers and their chewing lice up until 1991. A good summery of the studies conducted by the key workers in the field thus far.}, month = {1991}, pages = {185 - 203}, keywords = {complex, differentiation, genetic, geomydoecus, Geomyidae, Mallophaga, rodentia, subgenus, talpoides, thomomys, thomomys bottae, trichodectidae, U.S.A.}, url = {https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/0098.pdf}, author = {Hellenthal,Ronald A. and Roger D. Price} } @article {38719, title = {Disparate rates of molecular evolution in cospeciating hosts and parasites}, journal = {Science}, volume = {265}, year = {1994}, month = {1994}, pages = {1087 - 1090}, abstract = {

DNA sequences for the gene encoding mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I in a group of rodents (pocket gophers) and their ectoparasites provide evidence for cospeciation and reveal different rates of molecular evolution in the hosts and their parasites. The overall rate of nucleotide substitution (both silent and replacement changes) is approximately three times higher in lice, and the rate of synonymous substitution (based on analysis of fourfold degenerate sites) is approximately an order of magnitude greater in lice. The difference in synonymous substitution rate between lice and gophers correlates with a difference in similar magnitude in generation times.

}, keywords = {base, differentiation, genetic, genome, geomydoecus, Geomyidae, gopher, Mallophaga, mitochondrial dna, Phylogeny, pocket, rodentia, substitutions, trees, trichodectidae}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/0004.pdf}, author = {Mark S. Hafner and Sudman,Philip D. and Villablanca,Francis X. and Theresa A. Spradling and James W. Demastes and Nadler,Steven A.} }