@article {40195,
	title = {Ectoparasites reduce long-term survival of their avian host},
	journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences},
	volume = {262},
	year = {1995},
	month = {1995},
	pages = {313 - 319},
	abstract = {Few field studies have evaluated whether ectoparasites affect the long-term survival of their adult host, although many studies have examined the impact of parasites on the host{\textquoteright}s offspring. In the colonially nesting cliff swallow (Hirundo pyrrhonota), we manipulated ectoparasite load (of cimicid bugs, fleas, and chewing lice) by fumigating adults and comparing annual survivorship of fumigated birds and non-fumigated control birds captured at the same time. Mark-recapture experiments over an 8-year period revealed that non-fumigated birds had an annual survivorship about 12\% less than chat of fumigated birds, on average, but the effects did not vary with colony size. Based on the difference in survivorship between fumigated and non-fumigated birds, we estimated that parasitized individuals had an annual survivorship of 0.38, compared with 0.57 for non-parasitized birds. The parasite-caused reduction in survivorship was the equivalent of the host losing up to one year of lifetime reproductive success. Ectoparasites did not preferentially infest hosts of lower quality, suggesting that all birds in the population were at potential risk of suffering parasitism and the resulting reductions in survivorship. Our results show that obligate ectoparasites such as fleas and lice impose a substantial long- term cost to their hosts and suggest that future studies of ectoparasitism should consider the parasites{\textquoteright} effect on annual survival of adult hosts.},
	keywords = {Amblycera, cliff, cost, ecology, fitness, Ischnocera, mate, parasite, selection, sexual, swallows},
	url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/38515.pdf},
	author = {Brown,Charles R. and Brown,Mary Bomberger and Rannala,Bruce}
}
@article {39756,
	title = {Ecological correlates of feather mite prevalence in passerines},
	journal = {Journal of Avian Biology},
	volume = {31},
	year = {2000},
	month = {2000},
	pages = {489 - 494},
	abstract = {<p>The relationship between host ecology and feather mite prevalence was analysed in birds. Feather mites are small arthropods (fam. Pterolichoidea and Analgoidea) commonly found on birds, although the nature of their interactions with the host (commensalism, mutualism or parasitism), still remains unclear. Host body mass and migratory behaviour were unrelated to feather mite prevalence. Contrary to expectation. there was no differences in mite prevalence between colonial and solitary-breeding species. However, winter sociality war associated with increased prevalence, suggesting that winter and breeding sociality affected the distribution patterns of feather mites in different ways. Plumage dichromatism was negatively correlated with feather mite prevalence. a result that is opposite to that predicted by the Hamilton and Zuk hypothesis for the evolution of host secondary sexual characteristics in relation to parasitism.</p>
},
	keywords = {adaptation, avian, bird, coloniality, Ischnocera, lice, parasite, Phthiraptera, plumage, Proctophyllodidae, selection, sexual},
	doi = {https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-048X.2000.310408.x},
	url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1034/j.1600-048X.2000.310408.x},
	author = {Figuerola, Jordi}
}
@article {39729,
	title = {Condition dependent immune defence in the Magpie: how important is ectoparasitism?},
	journal = {Biological Journal of the Linnean Society},
	volume = {72},
	year = {2001},
	month = {2001},
	pages = {279 - 286},
	abstract = {The immune system has high costs of maintenance and production and expression of immune function should be dependent on the condition of the individual. The :fitness cost that parasites impose on hosts may then be reflected in the investment that hosts make in immunity. Little is known about sources and consequences of intra- and interspecific variation in the presence and size of organs of the immune system in relation to ectoparasitism. Variation in the presence and size of the bursa of Fabricius and spleen size was measured to assess potential relationships between immune defence, nutritional condition and ectoparasites in the Magpie Pica pica. We found three species of lice (Mallophaga), two species of louse flies (Hippoboscidae), and the larvae of a tick (Ixodidae) infecting magpies. Age explained a significant proportion of variation in prevalence and number of parasite species, first-year birds being more parasitized than adults. Spleen size increased with nutritional condition, and the level of ectoparasitism negatively affected nutritional condition. Only one species of lice (Philopterus picae) was involved; the negative effect of this species on nutritional condition was more pronounced in males than females. These results are consistent with the hypotheses of condition-dependent investment in the immune system and sexual differences in susceptibility to parasite effects. Ectoparasites may thus play a role in modulating the relationship between condition and immune defence. We also found evidence for an interaction between the bursa and the spleen. Magpies with bursa had larger spleens than those where it had atrophied. This interaction did not affect ectoparasitism or nutritional condition. (C) 2001 The Linnean Society of London.},
	keywords = {defense, ectoparasite, immune, immunocompetence, Ischnocera, Philopterus, selection, sexual, size, spleen, system},
	author = {Blanco,G. and De la Puente,J. and Corroto,M. and Baz,T. and Colas,J.}
}
@article {39652,
	title = {Avian louse phylogeny (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera): a cladistic study based morphology},
	journal = {Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society},
	volume = {132},
	year = {2001},
	month = {2001},
	pages = {81 - 144},
	abstract = {<p>The louse suborder Ischnocera (Phthiraptera) contains 3,060 currently described species from over 150 genera. These lice are permanent obligatory ectoparasites of a diverse selection of birds and mammals with a worldwide distribution. They have historically played a major role in the development of our ideas on coevolution, and species hosted by mammals have been used extensively as model organism for the study of cospeciation. In contrast, avian taxa comprising 90\% of ischnoceran species have been largely neglected due to a lack of data on their wider systematics. A comparative study of based on adult and instar morphology of avian lice yielded 138 characters from 56 species (51 genera), all of which are figured or discussed for the first time. A further five outgroup taxa were examined from the mammalian ischnoceran family Trichodectidae. Phylogenetic analyses of these data produced three most parsimonious cladograms, the strict consensus of which is highly resolved and broadly consistent with previous classifications. Morphological character variation is extensive, and nymphal character traits are essential to identify instances of convergent evolution in adult morphology. The role of ontogeny in the development of the major character complexes of the head and abdomen is discussed and its implications for further work on the phylogeny of avian Ischnocera is considered. Comparison with host taxonomy reveals a pattern that is broadly consistent with a hypothesis of cospeciation. However, host - parasite associations are complex and difficult to interpret due to the low sample size. The role of niche specialisation to explain the presence of multiple unrelated lineages on the same host taxon is considered.</p>
},
	keywords = {bird, Chewing lice, classification, coevolution, congruence, cospeciation, gopher, host, Ischnocera, lice, mtax, ontogeny, parasite, PHP, Phthiraptera, Phylogeny, pocket, selection, sexual, trichodectidae},
	doi = {https://doi.org/10.1006/zjls.2000.0264},
	url = {https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/39652.pdf},
	author = {Vincent Stuart Smith}
}
