@article {96422, title = {Lice and lice-borne diseases in humans in Africa: A narrative review}, journal = {Acta Tropica}, volume = {237}, year = {2023}, month = {Jan-01-2023}, abstract = {

Lice are host-specific insects. Human lice include Pediculus humanus (body lice) which are known to be vectors of serious human bacterial infectious diseases including epidemic typhus, relapsing fever, trench fever and plague; Pediculus humanus capitis (head lice) that frequently affect children; and Pthirus pubis, commonly known as crab lice. In Africa, human infections transmitted by lice remained poorly known and therefore, underestimated, perhaps due to the lack of diagnostic tools and professional knowledge. In this paper we review current knowledge of the microorganisms identified in human lice in the continent of Africa, in order to alert health professionals to the importance of recognizing the risk of lice-related diseases.

}, keywords = {Africa, Bartonella, Borrelia, lice, Rickettsia, Yersinia}, issn = {0001-706X}, doi = {10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106709}, url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001706X22004016}, author = {Basma Ouarti and Descartes Maxime Mbogning-Fonkou and Houhamdi,Linda and Oleg Mediannikov and Parola,Phillipe} } @article {47461, title = {Experimental model to evaluate the human body louse as a vector of plague}, journal = {Journal of Infectious Diseases}, volume = {194}, year = {2006}, month = {2006}, pages = {1589 - 1596}, abstract = {

Yersinia pestis has been found in human body lice during plague outbreaks. To evaluate the role that the human body louse plays as a vector of plague, we allowed lice to feed on rabbits made bacteremic by intravenous inoculation of 10(9) colony-forming units of 3 strains of Y. pestis. High mortality rates were observed in all lice 2 and 3 days after infection. The lice remained infected with the strains for their life span and excreted viable organisms in their feces from day 1, although they were unable to lay eggs. The lice infected with 2 virulent strains of Y. pestis transmitted the organisms during feeding to uninfected rabbits, which became septicemic and died of plague (with 1 exception) 1 day later. Infections were transmitted to naive lice that were fed on these rabbits, showing that lice can be vectors of Y. pestis in an experimental model.

}, url = {http://phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/47461_0.pdf}, author = {Houhamdi,Linda and Lepidi,H. and Michel Drancourt and Didier Raoult} } @article {47454, title = {Validation of a Rickettsia prowazekii-Specific Quantitative Real-Time PCR Cassette and DNA Extraction Protocols Using Experimentally Infected Lice}, journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences}, volume = {1078}, year = {2006}, month = {2006}, pages = {617 - 619}, abstract = {

The presence of R. prowazekii in lice using R. prowazekii-specific qPCR cassettes showed the changes of the rickettsial burden in the lice post-infection.

}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1374.036}, url = {https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1196/annals.1374.036}, author = {Rozmajzl,Patrick J. and Houhamdi,Linda and Jiang,Ju and Didier Raoult and Richards,Allen L.} } @article {47229, title = {Experimentally infected human body lice (Pediculus humanus humanus) as vectors of Rickettsia rickettsii and Rickettsia conorii in a rabbit model}, journal = {American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene}, volume = {74}, year = {2006}, month = {2006}, pages = {521 - 525}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/46340.pdf}, author = {Houhamdi,Linda and Didier Raoult} } @article {47183, title = {Experimental infection of human body lice with Acinetobacter baumannii}, journal = {American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene}, volume = {74}, year = {2006}, month = {2006}, pages = {526 - 531}, abstract = {

The human body louse is currently recognized as a vector of Rickettsia prowazekii, Borrelia recurrentis, and Bartonella quintana. Previous studies have reported the isolation of Acinetobacter baumannii from the body lice of homeless patients. To study how the body louse acquires A. baumannii, we infected a rabbit by infusing 2 x 10(6) colony-forming units of the louse strain of A. baumannii. Two hundred body lice were infected by feeding on the bacteremic rabbit and compared with 200 uninfected lice and two groups of 200 lice feeding on rabbits infected either with another strain of A. baumannii or A. lwoffii. Each louse group received maintenance feedings once a day on another seronegative rabbit. Body lice that fed on rabbits infused with each Acinetobacter species demonstrated a generalized infection. The body lice did not transmit their infection to the nurse rabbit by bite while feeding or to their progeny (eggs and larvae). The lice excreted living Acinetobacter species within their feces. Only the louse strain of A. baumannii was pathogenic for the body louse. An increased mortality rate was observed between the second and third days post-infection; however, they remained infected for their lifespan.

}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/46293.pdf}, author = {Houhamdi,Linda and Didier Raoult} } @article {47185, title = {Yersinia pestis as a telluric, human ectoparasite-borne organism}, journal = {The Lancet Infectious Disease}, volume = {6}, year = {2006}, month = {2006}, pages = {234 - 241}, abstract = {

The classic epidemiological model of plague is an infection of rodents that is transmitted to human beings by rodent ectoparasites. This model fits with observations of sporadic and limited outbreaks, but hardly explains the persistence of plague foci for millennia or the epidemiological features drawn from the descriptions of historical pandemics. A comprehensive review of the published data, including scientific papers published in France between 1920 and 1940, allows the completion of the epidemiological chain by introducing soil as a reservoir, burrowing rodents as a first link, and human ectoparasites as the main driving force for pandemics. Modern studies are needed to confirm the validity of this controversial model and to assess the relative contribution of each link in the various epidemiological presentations of plague. If confirmed, these data should be taken into account to update public-health policies and bioterrorism risk management, particularly among ectoparasite-infested people.

}, author = {Michel Drancourt and Houhamdi,Linda and Didier Raoult} } @article {46043, title = {Detection of Rickettsia prowazekii in body lice and their feces by using monoclonal antibodies}, journal = {Journal of Clinical Microbiology}, volume = {40}, year = {2002}, month = {2002}, pages = {3358 - 3363}, abstract = {

In order to identify Rickettsia prowazekii in lice, we developed a panel of 29 representative monoclonal antibodies selected from 187 positive hybridomas made by fusing splenocytes of immunized mice with SP2/0-Ag14 myeloma cells. Immunoblotting revealed that 15 monoclonal antibodies reacted with the lipopolysaccharide-like (LPS-L) antigen and 14 reacted with the epitopes of a 120-kDa protein. Only typhus group rickettsiae reacted with the monoclonal antibodies against LPS-L. R. felis, a recently identified rickettsial species, did not react with these monoclonal antibodies, confirming that it is not antigenically related to the typhus group. Monoclonal antibodies against the 120-kDa protein were highly specific for R. prowazekii. We successfully applied a selected monoclonal antibody against the 120-kDa protein to detect by immunofluorescence assay R. prowazekii in smears from 56 wild and laboratory lice, as well as in 10 samples of louse feces infected or not infected with the organism. We have developed a simple, practical, and specific diagnostic assay for clinical specimens and large-scale epidemiological surveys with a sensitivity of 91\%. These monoclonal antibodies could be added to the rickettsial diagnostic panel and be used to differentiate R. prowazekii from other rickettsial species.

}, keywords = {animals, Antibodies, Bacterial/biosynthesis/diagnostic use/immunology, Antibodies, Monoclonal/biosynthesis/diagnostic use/immunology, Antibody Specificity, Blotting, Western, electrophoresis, Feces/microbiology, mice, Mice, Inbred BALB C, Pediculus, Rickettsia prowazekii/immunology/isolation \& purification}, url = {http://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/44853.pdf}, author = {Fang,Rong and Houhamdi,Linda and Didier Raoult} } @article {46030, title = {An experimental model of human body louse infection with Rickettsia prowazekii}, journal = {Journal of Infectious Diseases}, volume = {186}, year = {2002}, note = {LR: 20041117; DEP: 20021111; JID: 0413675; 0 (Anti-Bacterial Agents); 564-25-0 (Doxycycline); 2002/04/11 [received]; 2002/08/15 [revised]; 2002/11/11 [aheadofprint]; ppublish}, month = {2002}, pages = {1639 - 1646}, address = {United States}, abstract = {

Rickettsia prowazekii is transmitted to humans by the body louse. A new experimental model of body louse infection with R. prowazekii is reported here. Eight hundred human lice were infected by feeding on a rabbit that was made bacteremic by injecting 2x106 plaque-forming units of R. prowazekii. The bacterium invaded the stomach cells and was released in feces, in which it was detected 5 days after infection. At day 6 after infection, as a result of the cell burst and the spread of erythrocytes in the hemolymph, the louse became bright red and died within 4 h. The life span of infected lice was shortened by 20-23 days, compared with that of uninfected control lice. Infected lice did not transmit R. prowazekii to their progeny. Through cell culture, rickettsiae were cultivated from fecal samples up to 10 days after their emission. The administration of doxycycline to the rabbit during louse feeding did not cure lice from R. prowazekii infection.

}, keywords = {animals, Anti-Bacterial Agents/administration \& dosage, digestion, Doxycycline, Feces/parasitology, humans, lice infestations, Microscopy, Confocal, Models, Animal, Pediculus, Rabbit, Rickettsia prowazekii/growth \& development/isolation \& purification/pathogenicity, typhus}, isbn = {0022-1899}, author = {Houhamdi,Linda and Pierre-Edouard Fournier and Fang,R. and Lepidi,H. and Didier Raoult} } @article {45994, title = {Detection of Rickettsia felis and R. typhi in fleas using monoclonal antibodies}, journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences}, volume = {990}, year = {2003}, note = {LR: 20031114; JID: 7506858; 0 (Antibodies, Bacterial); 0 (Antibodies, Monoclonal); 0 (Antigens, Bacterial); ppublish}, month = {2003}, pages = {213 - 220}, address = {United States}, abstract = {

Rickettsia typhi and R. felis are flea-transmitted human pathogenic rickettsial species. To investigate the distributional dynamics of these rickettsiae we designed a micro-immunofluorescence assay (MIF) using species-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) applied to flea cryosections. Our assay was performed in less than 3 h and its applicability was demonstrated by the detection of R. typhi in 50 artificially infected human body lice but in none of 50 uninfected lice. With MIF, we identified 31 positive among 32 fleas proven with PCR to be naturally infected with R. felis; and 7 positive among 32 fleas proven with PCR to be naturally infected with R. typhi. No cross-detection was observed with both MAbs. Fresh R. felis-infected fleas were significantly more MIF-positive than long conserved R. typhi-infected fleas (31/32 vs. 7/32, P \< 0.01). This discrepancy may be linked to degradation of antigens by long-term freezing. For R. typhi-infected fleas, our assay was significantly more efficient when applied to fleas in early stages of infection (less than 15 days) by comparison with fleas frozen more than 20 days after infection (7/15 vs. 0/17, P = 0.01). This difference may be related to an antigenic modification caused by selection pressure in the vector and host process. The sensitivity of the described method did not exceed 47\% (7/15) for R. typhi but, in contrast, was 97\% for R. felis. Thus, our method appears to be useful for surveillance in R. felis infections, but requires further studies for the detection of R. typhi.

}, keywords = {animals, Antibodies, Bacterial, Antibodies, Monoclonal, Antigens, Bacterial/immunology, Fleas/microbiology, Fluorescent Antibody Technique, Lice/microbiology, Mice/microbiology, polymerase, Rickettsia felis/genetics/immunology/isolation \& purification, Rickettsia typhi/genetics/immunology/isolation \& purification}, isbn = {0077-8923}, author = {Fang,R. and Pierre-Edouard Fournier and Houhamdi,Linda and Azad,A. F. and Didier Raoult} } @article {45991, title = {An experimental model of human body louse infection with Rickettsia typhi}, journal = {Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences}, volume = {990}, year = {2003}, note = {LR: 20041117; JID: 7506858; ppublish}, month = {2003}, pages = {617 - 627}, address = {United States}, abstract = {

Murine (endemic) typhus caused by Rickettsia typhi, one of the most widely distributed arthropod-borne diseases, is transmitted to humans mainly by the oriental rat flea. The human body louse, Pediculus humanus corporis, has been suspected to have a role in the transmission of R. typhi to humans. To evaluate the potential role of Pediculus humanus corporis as a vector of murine typhus, we used R. typhi in an experimental model of human body louse infection previously used with R. prowazekii. A rabbit was made bacteremic by inoculating it with 2 x 10(6) plaque-forming units of R. typhi; it remained bacteremic for at least 59 hours. Two hundred body lice infected by feeding on the bacteremic rabbit were compared to 200 uninfected control lice. Each louse population was fed once a day on the abdomen of a seronegative rabbit. On day 8 post-infection, as a result of disruption of the gut cells and leakage of the blood meal into the hemolymph, four infected lice became bright red and died within four hours. The life span of infected lice was 20 days less than that of the controls. Infected lice did not transmit R. typhi to their progeny (eggs and larvae) as demonstrated by PCR amplification and cell culture. With an immunofluorescence assay, R. typhi was detected in feces from day 7 post-infection, and the organism remained viable in feces for up to 80 days as demonstrated by cell culture. From the 21st day post-infection, the rabbit used to feed the R. typhi-infected lice developed an immunoglobulin response with a titer of 1:50 increasing to 1:200 at the 42nd day post-infection. It showed no clinical signs of infection. The rabbit that was used to feed uninfected lice remained seronegative. Although body lice are not clearly identified vectors of R. typhi, it seems that under certain circumstances they could transmit R. typhi.

}, keywords = {animals, Disease Models, Animal, Feces/microbiology, humans, Lice/microbiology/pathogenicity/physiology, Rabbit, reproduction, Rickettsia typhi/pathogenicity, typhus}, isbn = {0077-8923}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07436.x}, url = {https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07436.x}, author = {Houhamdi,Linda and Pierre-Edouard Fournier and Fang,R. and Didier Raoult} } @article {45882, title = {Excretion of living Borrelia recurrentis in feces of infected human body lice}, journal = {Journal of Infectious Diseases}, volume = {191}, year = {2005}, month = {2005}, pages = {1898 - 1906}, abstract = {

Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF), caused by Borrelia recurrentis, is 1 of the most dangerous arthropod-borne diseases. Infection is thought to occur through louse crushing. Lice feces have not been shown to contain living borreliae. We infected 800 body lice by feeding them on a rabbit made spirochetemic by the injection of 2 x 106 borreliae. The life span of infected lice was not shortened. Once infected, lice remained infected for life but did not transmit borreliae to their progeny or to nurse rabbits. B. recurrentis infection was observed throughout lice and spread into hemolymph on day 5 after infection. We describe 2 unprecedented phenomena. In hemolymph, B. recurrentis formed clumps of aggregated borreliae. Using immunofluorescence assay, transmission electron microscopy, and culture, we detected borreliae excreted in lice feces beginning on day 14 after infection. We conclude that, similar to epidemic typhus and trench fever, transmission of LBRF may be caused by lice feces.

}, keywords = {animals, Borrelia, Feces/microbiology, Hemolymph/microbiology, humans, Pediculus, Rabbit, Relapsing Fever, Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov{\textquoteright}t, Time Factors}, isbn = {0022-1899}, url = {https://academic.oup.com/jid/article/191/11/1898/2191891}, author = {Houhamdi,Linda and Didier Raoult} } @article {45879, title = {Lice and lice-borne diseases in humans}, journal = {Medecine Tropicale}, volume = {65}, year = {2005}, note = {JID: 8710146; ppublish}, month = {2005}, pages = {13 - 23}, address = {France}, abstract = {Among the three lice which parasite the human being, the human body louse, Pediculus humanus humanus, is a vector of infectious diseases. It lives and multiplies in clothes and human infestation is associated with cold weather and a lack of hygiene. Three pathogenic bacteria are transmitted by the body louse: 1) Rickettsia prowazekii, the agent of epidemic typhus of which the most recent outbreak (and the largest since World War II) was observed during the civil war in Burundi; 2) Borrelia recurrentis, the agent of relapsing fever, historically responsible of massive outbreaks in Eurasia and Africa, which prevails currently in Ethiopia and neighboring countries; 3) Bartonella quintana, the agent of trench fever, bacillary angiomatosis, chronic bacteremia, endocarditis, and lymphadenopathy. Body louse infestation, associated with a decline in social and hygienic conditions provoked by civil unrest and economic instability, is reemergent worldwide. Recently, a forth human pathogen, Acinetobacter baumannii, has been associated to the body louse.}, isbn = {0025-682X}, author = {Houhamdi,Linda and Parola,Phillipe and Didier Raoult} } @article {45834, title = {Evidence for Louse-Transmitted Diseases in Soldiers of Napoleon{\textquoteright}s Grand Army in Vilnius}, journal = {Journal of Infectious Diseases}, volume = {193}, year = {2006}, month = {2006}, pages = {112 - 120}, abstract = {

Background. Many soldiers in Napoleon\&$\#$39;s Grand Army died of infectious diseases during its retreat from Russia. Because soldiers were commonly infested with body lice, it has been speculated that louse-borne infectious diseases, such as epidemic typhus (caused by Rickettsia prowazekii), were common.Methods. We investigated this possibility during recent excavations of a mass grave of Napoleon\&$\#$39;s soldiers in Vilnius, Lithuania. Segments of 5 body lice, identified morphologically and by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and sequencing, were found in earth from the grave that also contained fragments of soldiers\&$\#$39; uniforms.Results. DNA of Bartonella quintana (the agent of trench fever) was identified by PCR and sequencing in 3 of the lice. Similarly, PCR and sequencing of dental pulp from the remains of 35 soldiers revealed DNA of B. quintana in 7 soldiers and DNA of R. prowazekii in 3 other soldiers.Conclusions. Our results show that louse-borne infectious diseases affected nearly one-third of Napoleon\&$\#$39;s soldiers buried in Vilnius and indicate that these diseases might have been a major factor in the French retreat from Russia.

}, isbn = {0022-1899}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1086/498534}, url = {https://academic.oup.com/jid/article/193/1/112/863741/}, author = {Didier Raoult and Dutour,O. and Houhamdi,Linda and Jankauskas,R. and Pierre-Edouard Fournier and Ardagna,Y. and Michel Drancourt and Signoli,M. and La,V. D. and Macia,Y. and Aboudharam,G.} }