01866nas a2200193 4500008004100000022001400041245010200055210006900157260001200226300001400238490000700252520123700259100002801496700002801524700002501552700002501577700001801602856005201620 2008 eng d a0022-339500aPatterns of Parasite Abundance and Distribution in Island Populations of Galápagos Endemic Birds0 aPatterns of Parasite Abundance and Distribution in Island Popula c06-2008 a584 - 5900 v943 a

Parasite life-history characteristics, the environment, and host defenses determine variation in parasite population parameters across space and time. Parasite abundance and distribution have received little attention despite their pervasive effects on host populations and community dynamics. We used analyses of variance to estimate the variability of intensity, prevalence, and abundance of 4 species of lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) infecting Gala ́pagos doves and Gala ́pagos hawks and 1 haemosporidian parasite (Haemosporida: Haemoproteidae) infecting the doves across island populations throughout their entire geographic ranges. Population parameters of parasites with direct life cycles varied less within than among parasite species, and intensity and abundance did not differ significantly across islands. Prevalence explained a proportion of the variance (34%), similar to infection intensity (33%) and parasite abundance (37%). We detected a strong parasite species-by-island interaction, suggesting that parasite population dynamics is independent among islands. Prevalence (up to 100%) and infection intensity (parasitemias up to 12.7%) of Haemoproteus sp. parasites varied little across island populations.

1 aSantiago-Alarcon, Diego1 aWhiteman, Noah, Kerness1 aParker, Patricia, G.1 aRicklefs, Robert, E.1 aValkiunas, G. uhttp://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1645/GE-1351.101982nas a2200229 4500008004100000022001400041245003600055210003600091260001200127300001400139490000700153520133000160653001801490653001801508653001601526653003301542100002601575700002401601700002501625700002801650856007401678 2014 eng d a1744-956100aBirds are islands for parasites0 aBirds are islands for parasites c08/2014 a20140255 0 v103 a

Understanding the mechanisms driving the extraordinary diversification of parasites is a major challenge in evolutionary biology. Co-speciation, one proposed mechanism that could contribute to this diversity is hypothesized to result from allopatric co-divergence of host–parasite populations. We found that island populations of the Galápagos hawk (Buteo galapagoensis) and a parasitic feather louse species (Degeeriella regalis) exhibit patterns of co-divergence across variable temporal and spatial scales. Hawks and lice showed nearly identical population genetic structure across the Galápagos Islands. Hawk population genetic structure is explained by isolation by distance among islands. Louse population structure is best explained by hawk population structure, rather than isolation by distance per se, suggesting that lice tightly track the recent population histories of their hosts. Among hawk individuals, louse populations were also highly structured, suggesting that hosts serve as islands for parasites from an evolutionary perspective. Altogether, we found that host and parasite populations may have responded in the same manner to geographical isolation across spatial scales. Allopatric co-divergence is likely one important mechanism driving the diversification of parasites.

10aco-divergence10aco-speciation10acoevolution10apopulation genetic structure1 aKoop, Jennifer, A. H.1 aDeMatteo, Karen, E.1 aParker, Patricia, G.1 aWhiteman, Noah, Kerness uhttp://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/cgi/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2014.025501588nas a2200181 4500008004100000245015000041210006900191260000900260300001400269490000600283520092900289100002401218700002801242700001601270700002501286700002201311856007301333 2009 eng d00aEight polymorphic microsatellite markers isolated from the widespread avian louse Colpocephalum turbinatum (Phthiraptera: Amblycera: Menoponidae)0 aEight polymorphic microsatellite markers isolated from the wides c2009 a910 - 9120 v93 a

We report eight novel microsatellite loci for Colpocephalum turbinatum, a parasitic louse of the endangered Galápagos hawk (Buteo galapagoensis). Two island populations of C. turbinatum (N = 30) were genotyped for each locus. We found between two and 12 alleles per locus, polymorphic information content from 0.268 to 0.798, observed heterozygosity from 0.067 to 0.667 and no linkage disequilibrium was detected between loci. These markers will be useful in understanding contemporary gene flow of C. turbinatum among islands in the Galápagos and in understanding transmission dynamics between B. galapagoensis hosts, within and between social groups. Because this louse is unusually widespread among avian host taxa, parasitizing at least 53 bird species in the Falconiformes, Strigiformes and Columbiformes, these markers are likely to be useful outside the context of the Galápagos Islands.

1 aPeters, Maureen, B.1 aWhiteman, Noah, Kerness1 aHagen, Cris1 aParker, Patricia, G.1 aGlenn, Travis, C. uhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-0998.2008.02473.x01310nas a2200181 4500008004100000245012800041210006900169260000900238300001400247490000600261520067300267100002400940700001600964700002800980700002501008700002201033856007301055 2009 eng d00aCharacterization of 10 microsatellite loci in an avian louse, Degeeriella regalis (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera: Philopteridae)0 aCharacterization of 10 microsatellite loci in an avian louse Deg c2009 a882 - 8840 v93 a

We isolated and characterized 10 polymorphic microsatellite loci in an ischnoceran louse, Degeeriella regalis, which parasitizes the threatened Galápagos hawk (Buteo galapagoensis) and other falconiform birds. The loci were screened across 30 individuals from two island populations in the Galápagos Islands. The number of alleles per locus ranged from two to 28. Polymorphic information content ranged from 0.14 to 0.94 and observed heterozygosity ranged from 0 to 0.67. These markers will be valuable in comparative population genetics studies in this species, which is the focus of a long-term population and disease ecology research program.

1 aPeters, Maureen, B.1 aHagen, Cris1 aWhiteman, Noah, Kerness1 aParker, Patricia, G.1 aGlenn, Travis, C. uhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-0998.2008.02363.x02515nas a2200157 4500008004100000245018800041210006900229260000900298300001600307490000700323520187100330100002802201700002502229700002502254856007802279 2007 eng d00aCo-phylogeography and comparative population genetics of the threatened Galápagos hawk and three ectoparasite species: ecology shapes population histories within parasite communities0 aCophylogeography and comparative population genetics of the thre c2007 a4759 - 47730 v223 a

Comparative microevolutionary studies of multiple parasites occurring on a single host species can help shed light on the processes underlying parasite diversification. We compared the phylogeographical histories, population genetic structures and population divergence times of three co-distributed and phylogenetically independent ectoparasitic insect species, including an amblyceran and an ischnoceran louse (Insecta: Phthiraptera), a hippoboscid fly (Insecta: Diptera) and their endemic avian host in the Galápagos Islands. The Galápagos hawk (Aves: Falconiformes: Buteo galapagoensis) is a recently arrived endemic lineage in the Galápagos Islands and its island populations are diverging evolutionarily. Each parasite species differed in relative dispersal ability and distribution within the host populations, which allowed us to make predictions about their degree of population genetic structure and whether they tracked host gene flow and colonization history among islands. To control for DNA region in comparisons across these phylogenetically distant taxa, we sequenced ~1 kb of homologous mitochondrial DNA from samples collected from all island populations of the host. Remarkably, the host was invariant across mitochondrial regions that were comparatively variable in each of the parasite species, to degrees consistent with differences in their natural histories. Differences in these natural history traits were predictably correlated with the evolutionary trajectories of each parasite species, including rates of interisland gene flow and tracking of hosts by parasites. Congruence between the population structures of the ischnoceran louse and the host suggests that the ischnoceran may yield insight into the cryptic evolutionary history of its endangered host, potentially aiding in its conservation management.

1 aWhiteman, Noah, Kerness1 aKimball, Rebecca, T.1 aParker, Patricia, G. uhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03512.x01879nas a2200169 4500008004100000245013400041210007000175260000900245300001400254490000800268520118400276100002801460700002201488700002601510700002501536856014801561 2006 eng d00aDisease ecology in the Galápagos Hawk (Buteo galapagoensis): host genetic diversity, parasite load and natural antibodies0 aDisease ecology in the Galápagos Hawk iButeo galapagoensisi host c2006 a797 - 8040 v2733 a

An increased susceptibility to disease is one hypothesis explaining how inbreeding hastens extinction in island endemics and threatened species. Experimental studies show that disease resistance declines as inbreeding increases, but data from in situ wildlife systems are scarce. Genetic diversity increases with island size across the entire range of an extremely inbred Gala´pagos endemic bird, providing the context for a natural experiment examining the effects of inbreeding on disease susceptibility. Extremely inbred populations of Gala´pagos hawks had higher parasite abundances than relatively outbred populations. We found a significant island effect on constitutively produced natural antibody (NAb) levels and inbred populations generally harboured lower average and less variable NAb levels than relatively outbred populations. Furthermore, NAb levels explained abundance of amblyceran lice, which encounter the host immune system. This is the first study linking inbreeding, innate immunity and parasite load in an endemic, in situ wildlife population and provides a clear framework for assessment of disease risk in a Galápagos endemic.

1 aWhiteman, Noah, Kerness1 aMatson, Kevin, D.1 aBollmer, Jennifer, L.1 aParker, Patricia, G. uhttps://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2005.3396?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3Dpubmed&01983nas a2200145 4500008004100000245009600041210006900137260000900206300001400215490000600229520146700235100002801702700002501730856008201755 2005 eng d00aUsing parasites to infer host population history: a new rationale for parasite conservation0 aUsing parasites to infer host population history a new rationale c2005 a175 - 1810 v83 a

Only one of the 5000 extant louse species (Phthiraptera) and no species of flea (Siphonaptera), parasitichelminth (Platyhelminthes), parasitic nematode (Nemata), mite, or tick (Acari) is listed as threatened by the IUCN, despite impassioned pleas for parasite conservation beginning more than a decade ago. Although they should be conserved for their own sake, past arguments, highlighting the intrinsic and utilitarian value of parasites, have not translated into increased attention by scientists or conservation managers, at least by the standard of listing for protection. Here, the use of estimated genealogies and population genetic patterns of parasites to illuminate their hosts’ evolutionary and demographic history is advocated. Parasite DNA generally evolves more rapidly than their hosts’, which renders it an underexploited resource for conservation biologists, particularly in cases where the hosts’ genealogy or degree of population genetic structure is difficult to measure directly. Moreover, parasite gene flow may occur during host dispersal irrespective of host gene flow, revealing host movement through space and time. Parasite ecology and evolution may thus become another tool for the management of endangered vertebrate populations. This will result in the recognition of new host records, parasite species and cryptic lineages, which will help lift the veil of ignorance with respect to parasite biodiversity.

1 aWhiteman, Noah, Kerness1 aParker, Patricia, G. uhttps://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1017/S136794300500191500487nas a2200133 4500008004100000245008700041210006900128260000900197300001400206490000800220100002800228700002500256856007200281 2004 eng d00aBody condition and parasite load predict territory ownership in the galapagos hawk0 aBody condition and parasite load predict territory ownership in  c2004 a915 - 9210 v1061 aWhiteman, Noah, Kerness1 aParker, Patricia, G. uhttp://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/8729.pdf01976nas a2200205 4500008004100000245006500041210006500106260000900171300001400180490000700194520138100201653001601582653001201598653001201610653001401622653000901636100002801645700002501673856007201698 2004 eng d00aEffects of host sociality on ectoparasite population biology0 aEffects of host sociality on ectoparasite population biology c2004 a939 - 9470 v903 aTheory predicts a positive relationship between parasite infection intensity and host density. However, this generalization is complicated in natural systems by differences in life history among parasite taxa, e.g., transmissibility. Accordingly, predictions relating host density to parasite load should be specific to each parasite taxon. To illustrate this, we studied parasites that differed greatly in life history in the context of the Galapagos hawk's (Buteo galapagoensis) variably cooperative mating system. Two louse (Phthiraptera) species were collected: Colpocephalum turbinatum (Amblycera), with 53 host species, and Degeeriella regalis (Ischnocera), with 10 host species, although B. galapagoensis was the only known Galapagos host. Sixty territorial adult male hawks from 26 groups of 1-6 males were quantitatively sampled for lice. Average abundance and intensity of C. turbinatum but not D. regalis were significantly larger in large groups of hawks than small groups. Males from the same polyandrous group harbored significantly correlated abundances of C. turbinatum but not D. regalis. Prevalence, average abundance, and intensity of C. turbinatum were significantly higher than D. regalis. These are the first results to demonstrate significant differences in a suite of population responses between these louse suborders in the context of host sociality.10aAcciptridae10abiology10aecology10aGalapagos10ahawk1 aWhiteman, Noah, Kerness1 aParker, Patricia, G. uhttp://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/8716.pdf02438nas a2200301 4500008004100000245014500041210006900186260000900255300001600264490000700280520142300287653001201710653001801722653001901740653001201759653001401771653001801785653003301803653002801836653001401864653003701878653004501915100002801960700002801988700002302016700002502039856007202064 2004 eng d00aDifferences in straggling rates between genera of dove lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) reinforce population genetic and cophylogenetic patterns0 aDifferences in straggling rates between genera of dove lice Inse c2004 a1113 - 11190 v343 a

Differences in dispersal abilities have been implicated for causing disparate evolutionary patterns between Columbicola and Physconelloides lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera). However, no study has documented straggling (when lice are found on atypical hosts) rates within these lineages. We used the fact that the Galapagos Hawk, Buteo galapagoensis (Gould) (Falconiformes) feeds on the Galapagos Dove Zenaida galapagoensis Gould (Columbiformes) within an ecologically simplified setting. The Galapagos Dove is the only typical host of Columbicola macrourae (Wilson) and Physconelloides galapagensis (Kellogg and Huwana) in Galapagos. We quantitatively sampled and found these lice on both bird species. A DNA barcoding approach confirmed that stragglers were derived from Galapagos doves. We also collected a Bovicola sp. louse, likely originating from a goat (Capra hircus). On hawks, C. macrourae was significantly more prevalent than P. galapagensis. On doves, the two lice were equally prevalent and abundant. Differences in prevalence on hawks was a function of differences in straggling rate between lice, and not a reflection of their relative representation within the dove population. This provides further evidence that differences in dispersal abilities may drive differences in the degree of cospeciation in Columbicola and Phyconelloides lice, which have become model systems in evolutionary biology.

10aanimals10aBase Sequence10aBird parasites10aEcuador10aEvolution10ahost parasite10aLice/classification/genetics10aMolecular Sequence Data10aPhylogeny10aResearch Support, Non-U.S. Gov't10aResearch Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.1 aWhiteman, Noah, Kerness1 aSantiago-Alarcon, Diego1 aJohnson, Kevin, P.1 aParker, Patricia, G. uhttp://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/5618.pdf