02192nas a2200229 4500008004100000022001400041245009900055210006900154260001600223300001200239490000800251520138300259653002601642653002401668653001701692653001601709653001301725653001601738100002001754700002201774856016601796 2023 eng d a0022-339500aDoes Preening Behavior Reduce the Prevalence of Avian Feather Lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera)?0 aDoes Preening Behavior Reduce the Prevalence of Avian Feather Li cMay-02-2023 a145-1470 v1093 a

Animals defend themselves against parasites in many ways. Defenses, such as physiological immune responses, are capable of clearing some infections. External parasites that do not feed on blood, however, are not controlled by the physiological immune system. Instead, ectoparasites like feather- feeding lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) are primarily controlled by behavioral defenses such as preening. Here we test the hypothesis that birds able to preen are capable of clearing infestations of feather lice. We experimentally manipulated preening ability in a captive population of rock pigeons (Columba livia) that were infested with identical numbers of feather lice (Columbicola columbae or Campanulotes compar or both). We then monitored the feather louse infestations for 42 wk. Birds with impaired preening remained infested throughout the experiment; in contrast, the prevalence of lice on birds that could preen normally decreased by 50%. These data indicate that it is indeed possible for birds to clear themselves of feather lice, and perhaps other ectoparasites, by preening. We note, however, that captive birds spend more time preening than wild birds, and that they are less likely to be reinfested than wild birds. Thus, additional studies are necessary to determine under what circumstances wild birds can clear themselves of ectoparasites by preening.

10aAnti-parasite defense10aBehavioral immunity10aectoparasite10aExterminate10agrooming10aRock Pigeon1 aBush, Sarah, E.1 aClayton, Dale, H. uhttps://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-parasitology/volume-109/issue-3/23-2/Does-Preening-Behavior-Reduce-the-Prevalence-of-Avian-Feather-Lice/10.1645/23-2.short02173nas a2200229 4500008004100000022001400041245009800055210006900153260001200222300000900234490000800243520149200251653001201743653001801755653001301773653000901786653001401795653002101809100002001830700002701850856006601877 2018 eng d a0962-843600aEctoparasite defence in humans: relationships to pathogen avoidance and clinical implications0 aEctoparasite defence in humans relationships to pathogen avoidan c07-2019 a13pp0 v3733 a

Currently, disgust is regarded as the main adaptation for defence against pathogens and parasites in humans. Disgust's motivational and behavioural features, including withdrawal, nausea, appetite suppression and the urge to vomit, defend effectively against ingesting or touching sources of pathogens. However, ectoparasites do not attack their hosts via ingestion, but rather actively attach themselves to the body surface. Accordingly, by itself, disgust offers limited defence against ectoparasites. We propose that, like non-human animals, humans have a distinct ectoparasite defence system that includes cutaneous sensory mechanisms, itch-generation mechanisms and grooming behaviours. The existence of adaptations for ectoparasite defence is supported by abundant evidence from non-human animals, as well as more recent evidence concerning human responses to ectoparasite cues. Several clinical disorders may be dysfunctions of the ectoparasite defence system, including some that are pathologies of grooming, such as skin picking and trichotillomania, and others, such as delusory parasitosis and trypophobia, which are pathologies of ectoparasite detection. We conclude that future research should explore both distinctions between, and overlap across, ectoparasite defence systems and pathogen avoidance systems, as doing so will not only illuminate proximate motivational systems, including disgust, but may also reveal important clinical and social consequences.

10adisgust10aectoparasites10agrooming10aitch10apathogens10atrichotillomania1 aKupfer, Tom, R.1 aFessler, Daniel, M. T. uhttps://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.020702299nas a2200241 4500008004100000022001400041245011200055210006900167260001200236300001600248490000800264520153900272653001401811653001801825653001801843653001301861653001201874653001501886100001801901700002201919700002301941856009301964 2012 eng d a0031-182000aHost body microcosm and ectoparasite infracommunities: arthropod ectoparasites are not spatially segregated0 aHost body microcosm and ectoparasite infracommunities arthropod  c11-2012 a1739 - 17480 v1393 a

We studied the distribution of ectoparasite species (an ixodid tick, a chigger mite, 7 mesostigmate mites, 5 fleas and 3 lice) on bodies of 5 species of rodent hosts from the marshlands in Argentina to establish whether arthropod ectoparasites are segregated across body parts of the same host individual. We asked (a) whether an individual ectoparasite species prefers certain parts of the body of its host and, if yes, whether these preferences overlap among ectoparasite species; (b) whether ectoparasite species composition differs among different parts of a host's body; and (c) whether co-occurrences of ectoparasite species within pre-defined body parts of a host are non-random and, if yes, whether ectoparasites co-occur in the same body part of a host either less or more often than expected by chance. It was found that, in general, ectoparasite species were not segregated across body parts of a host. Although some ectoparasites preferred certain body parts, these preferences were similar among ectoparasites belonging to different species and/or higher taxa resulting in similarity among host body parts in ectoparasite species composition. In addition, ectoparasite species demonstrated a tendency to co-occur on the same body parts of a host and not to be segregated among them. It was concluded that the distribution of ectoparasites on the body of a small mammalian host is driven mainly by their interaction with the host rather than by distinct preferences or interactions among ectoparasite species.

10abody part10aco-occurrence10aectoparasites10agrooming10arodents10asimilarity1 aPilosof, Shai1 aLareschi, Marcela1 aKrasnov, Boris, R. uhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0031182012001205/type/journal_article04590nas a2200241 4500008004100000022001400041245006800055210006400123260001200187300001000199490000800209520389200217653002304109653001304132653000904145653001204154653001304166100002404179700003004203700002004233700002204253856007304275 2020 eng d a0004-803800aThe role of scratching in the control of ectoparasites on birds0 arole of scratching in the control of ectoparasites on birds c02-2020 a1 - 90 v1373 a

Grooming by birds is thought to serve essential anti-parasite functions. While preening has been well studied, little is known about the function of scratching in birds. We conducted a series of experiments to determine the effectiveness of scratching for controlling feather lice (Columbicola columbae) on Rock Pigeons (Columba livia). First, we used a hobbling technique to impair scratching. After 6 mo, hobbled birds had significantly more lice than controls that could scratch. In addition, lice on hobbled birds were concentrated on the birds' heads and necks (i.e. the regions that birds scratch). Secondly, we tested the role the claw plays in scratching by declawing nestlings. Once mature, declawed pigeons had significantly more lice than control birds with claws. Moreover, lice on declawed birds were concentrated on the head and neck. Next, we tested whether the flange found on the middle claw of many bird species enhances scratching. We experimentally manipulated the flange; however, the number and location of lice on birds without flanges was not significantly different than that on control birds with intact flanges. Finally, we tested whether scratching removes parasites directly or indirectly by “flushing” them onto body regions where they can be preened. When we impaired scratching (with hobbles) and preening (with “bits”) we found that scratching no longer reduced the number of lice on birds. Our results indicated that scratching and preening work synergistically; scratching reduces parasite load by flushing lice onto regions of the body where they can be eliminated by preening.

El rol del rascado en el control de ectoparásitos en aves
RESUMEN
Se piensa que el aseo por parte de las aves tiene funciones antiparasitarias esenciales. Mientras que el acicalamiento ha sido bien estudiado, poco se sabe sobre la función del rascado en las aves. Realizamos una serie de experimentos para determinar la efectividad del rascado en el control del piojo de las plumas (Columbicola columbae) en Columba livia. Primero, usamos una técnica de cojera para impedir el rascado. Luego de seis meses, las aves con cojera tenían significativamente más piojos que las aves control que si podían rascarse. Adicionalmente, los piojos en las aves cojas se concentraron en la cabeza y el cuello de las aves (i.e. las regiones que se rascan las aves). Segundo, evaluamos el rol que juegan las garras en el rascado en polluelos a los que se les sacaron las garras. En la madurez, las palomas sin garras tuvieron significativamente más piojos que las aves control con garras. Más aún, los piojos en las aves sin garras se concentraron en la cabeza y el cuello. Luego, evaluamos si el reborde que se encuentra en la garra del medio de muchas especies de aves mejora el rascado. Manipulamos experimentalmente el reborde; sin embargo, el número y la ubicación de los piojos en las aves sin rebordes no fueron significativamente diferentes del de las aves control con rebordes intactos. Finalmente, evaluamos si el rascado remueve a los parásitos directamente o indirectamente “corriéndolos” hacia regiones del cuerpo donde las aves pueden acicalarse. Cuando impedimos el rascado (con cojera) y el acicalamiento (con “frenos”), encontramos que el rascado dejó de reducir el número de piojos en las aves. Nuestros resultados indicaron que
el rascado y el acicalamiento funcionan en sinergia; el rascado reduce la carga parasitaria corriendo a los piojos hacia las regiones del cuerpo donde pueden ser eliminados por acicalamiento.


Palabras clave: acicalamiento, aseo, defensa comportamental, Ischnocera, palomas, Phthiraptera, piojo

10abehavioral defense10agrooming10alice10aPigeons10apreening1 aGoodman, Graham, B.1 aKlingensmith, Margaux, C.1 aBush, Sarah, E.1 aClayton, Dale, H. uhttps://academic.oup.com/auk/article/doi/10.1093/auk/ukaa010/574350501874nas a2200229 4500008004100000022001300041245007100054210006900125260001200194300001400206490000700220520121500227653001401442653002101456653001301477653002201490653001401512653001401526653002001540100001701560856006701577 1990 eng d a0149763400aBehavioral adaptations to pathogens and parasites: Five strategies0 aBehavioral adaptations to pathogens and parasites Five strategie c09-1990 a273 - 2940 v143 a

The ever present threat of viral, bacterial, protozoan and metazoan parasites in the environment of wild animals is viewed as responsible for the natural selection of a variety of behavioral patterns that enable animals to survive and reproduce in this type of environment. Several lines of research, some quite recent, point to five behavioral strategies that vertebrates utilize to increase their personal or inclusive fitness in the face of parasites (broadly defined to include pathogens). These are: 1) avoidance of parasites; 2) controlled exposure to parasites to potentiate the immune system; 3) behavior of sick animals including anorexia and depression to overcome systemic febrile infections; 4) helping sick animals; 5) sexual selection for mating partners with the genetic endowment for resistance to parasites. The point is made that to consider a behavioral pattern as having evolved to serve a parasite control function the parasite or causative agent should be shown to adversely impact the animal's fitness and the behavior in question must be shown to help animals, or their offspring or group mates, in combating their exposure, or reducing their vulnerability, to the parasite

10aEvolution10aFeeding Behavior10agrooming10aMaternal behavior10aparasites10apathogens10aSexual Behavior1 aHart, B., L. uhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S014976340580038702497nas a2200229 4500008004100000022001300041245021200054210006900266260001200335300001600347490000700363520168400370653002302054653001702077653001302094653002302107653001202130100002002142700002002162700001802182856006702200 2010 eng d a0032579100aBeak condition and cage density determine abundance and spatial distribution of northern fowl mites, Ornithonyssus sylviarum, and chicken body lice, Menacanthus stramineus, on caged laying hens0 aBeak condition and cage density determine abundance and spatial  c12-2010 a2565 - 25720 v893 a

Adult White Leghorn hens (Hy-Line strain W-36) were inoculated with either northern fowl mites or chicken body lice, and the ectoparasite populations were monitored over periods of 9 to 16 wk. Two beak conditions (beak trimmed or beak intact) and 2 housing densities (1 or 2 hens per 25 × 31 cm suspended wire cage) were tested. Populations of both ectoparasites were at least 10 times lower on beak-intact hens compared with populations on beak-trimmed hens. Cage density did not influence mite numbers, but higher numbers of lice (2 to 3 times) developed on hens held at the higher cage density. Louse distribution on the body and louse population age structure were also influenced by host beak condition. Beak-intact hens had a higher proportion of lice under the wings, whereas beak-trimmed hens had the majority of lice on the lower abdomen. Louse populations on beak-trimmed hens also comprised relatively more immature stages than populations found on beak-intact hens. The effects are likely related to decreased grooming efficiency by beak-trimmed hens and, in the case of lice, the higher host density. The high mite and louse populations on most commercial caged laying hens are probably a direct result of beak trimming. However, selection of more docile breeds that can be held without trimming may allow the hens themselves to reduce ectoparasites below economically damaging levels. This could benefit producers, animal welfare advocates, and human health by reducing 1) costs of beak trimming, 2) pesticide treatment costs (including human and bird chemical exposure concerns), and 3) objections to beak trimming from the animal welfare community.

10achicken body louse10aectoparasite10agrooming10anorthern fowl mite10awelfare1 aMullens, B., A.1 aChen, Brian, L.1 aOwen, Jeb, P. uhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S003257911942447401606nas a2200277 4500008004100000022001300041245003500054210003500089300001200124490000600136520092500142653001101067653001201078653001501090653001301105653000901118653000801127653001301135653001201148100002201160700002601182700003001208700002101238700002001259856004901279 2010 eng d a1874453200aHow Birds Combat Ectoparasites0 aHow Birds Combat Ectoparasites a41 - 710 v33 a

Birds are plagued by an impressive diversity of ectoparasites, ranging from feather-feeding lice, to feather- degrading bacteria. Many of these ectoparasites have severe negative effects on host fitness. It is therefore not surprising that selection on birds has favored a variety of possible adaptations for dealing with ectoparasites. The functional signifi- cance of some of these defenses has been well documented. Others have barely been studied, much less tested rigorously. In this article we review the evidence - or lack thereof - for many of the purported mechanisms birds have for dealing with ectoparasites. We concentrate on features of the plumage and its components, as well as anti-parasite behaviors. In some cases, we present original data from our own recent work. We make recommendations for future studies that could im- prove our understanding of this poorly known aspect of avian biology.

10aanting10adusting10aFumigation10agrooming10amolt10aoil10apreening10asunning1 aClayton, Dale, H.1 aKoop, Jennifer, A. H.1 aHarbison, Christopher, W.1 aMoyer, Brett, R.1 aBush, Sarah, E. uhttp://benthamopen.com/ABSTRACT/TOOENIJ-3-4101704nas a2200217 4500008004100000022001400041245003700055210003600092300001300128490000800141520112200149653002101271653001301292653001401305653002101319653001301340653001401353100002001367700002201387856007701409 2018 eng d a0962-843600aAnti-parasite behaviour of birds0 aAntiparasite behaviour of birds a201701960 v3733 a

Birds have many kinds of internal and external parasites, including viruses, bacteria and fungi, as well as protozoa, helminths and arthropods. Because parasites have negative effects on host fitness, selection favours the evolution of anti-parasite defences, many of which involve behaviour. We provide a brief review of anti-parasite behaviours in birds, divided into five major categories: (i) body maintenance, (ii) nest maintenance, (iii) avoidance of parasitized prey, (iv) migration and (v) tolerance. We evaluate the adaptive significance of the different behaviours and note cases in which additional research is particularly needed. We briefly consider the interaction of different behaviours, such as sunning and preening, and how behaviou- ral defences may interact with other forms of defence, such as immune responses. We conclude by suggesting some general questions that need to be addressed concerning the nature of anti-parasite behaviour in birds.


This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue ‘Evolution of pathogen and parasite avoidance behaviours’.

10abody maintenance10agrooming10aMigration10anest maintenance10apreening10atolerance1 aBush, Sarah, E.1 aClayton, Dale, H. uhttp://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/lookup/doi/10.1098/rstb.2017.019602533nas a2200265 4500008004100000022001400041245012300055210006900178260001600247300001600263490000700279520174600286653001802032653001302050653001302063653001202076653001602088100001702104700001702121700001502138700001502153700002202168700002202190856005502212 2017 eng d a0164-029100aThe Number of Louse Eggs on Wild Japanese Macaques (Macaca fuscata) Varies with Age, but Not with Sex or Season0 aNumber of Louse Eggs on Wild Japanese Macaques iMacaca fuscatai  cJan-12-2017 a1090 - 11010 v383 a

During grooming, primates remove harmful ectoparasites, such as ticks and lice, and there is direct evidence for a health benefit of tick removal. Grooming behaviors differ among primates with respect to age and sex. Moreover, the number of ectoparasite may exhibit seasonal variation. Therefore the number of ectoparasites on a host may vary with effects, host age and sex, and season. However, these effects have not been a focus of louse infestation studies of primates. Grooming in Japanese macaques is related to sex and age, with developmental changes in behavior corre- sponding to the timing of tooth eruption. Moreover, behavioral data for Japanese macaques suggest that lice load may differ with the season. Thus, we examined whether the number of louse eggs varies according to host macaque sex, age, and season, and whether it changes in response to tooth eruption. We counted unhatched and hatched eggs attached to the hair on six 1-cm2 areas on the left wrist skin of culled macaques, using a stereoscopic microscope. We sampled five winter coats and three summer coats for each age class: infant, juvenile, adolescent, and adult. The number of unhatched and hatched eggs was related to age, but not to sex and season. There were significant differences in the number of unhatched eggs between infants and adults, juveniles and adults, and adolescents and adults. There were also significant differences in the number of hatched eggs between infants and adults, juveniles and adults, adolescents and adults. Tooth eruption did not influence the number of louse eggs. These results suggest that researchers should consider the age of host animals when assessing the relationship between grooming and ectoparasites.

10aectoparasites10agrooming10ahost sex10ahostage10aseasonality1 aIshii, Naomi1 aKato, Takuya1 aUno, Taiki1 aTanaka, I.1 aKajigaya, Hiroshi1 aHayama, Shin-ichi uhttp://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10764-017-9998-101454nas a2200265 4500008004100000020001400041245009500055210006900150260002500219300001400244490000700258520050500265653001200770653002100782653003200803653001300835653003100848653006600879653002000945653000800965653005300973653001601026100001301042856013301055 1991 eng d a0015-568300aPolyplax spinulosa infestation and antibody response in various strains of laboratory rats0 aPolyplax spinulosa infestation and antibody response in various  aCZECHOSLOVAKIAc1991 a355 - 3620 v383 aThe degree and duration of Polyplax spinulosa Burm. infestation depend on the sex, age and genetic factors of the host. Various rat strains differ in the severity of lousiness. Host grooming is an important factor in the rat-louse relationship. After longlasting infestations rats become partially resistant. Serum antibody level depends mainly on the severity and the duration of the infestation, and follows the dynamics of louse population. Serum antibodies have no direct negative effect on lice.10aanimals10aAntibodies/blood10aAntibody Formation/genetics10agrooming10aIvermectin/therapeutic use10aLice Infestations/genetics/immunology/parasitology/veterinary10aLice/immunology10arat10aRodent Diseases/genetics/immunology/parasitology10aSex Factors1 aVolf, P. uhttps://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/content/polyplax-spinulosa-infestation-and-antibody-response-various-strains-laboratory-rats01880nas a2200313 4500008004100000245009700041210006900138260000900207300001200216490000800228520086200236653001201098653001301110653003201123653001601155653001101171653002001182653001301202653002001215653004901235653002801284653003701312653001701349653002001366100001801386700001801404700002201422856012201444 1995 eng d00aEffects of the sucking louse (Linognathus vituli) on the grooming behaviour of housed calves0 aEffects of the sucking louse Linognathus vituli on the grooming  c1995 a33 - 350 v1373 aThe behaviour of cattle with and without louse infestation was studied for eight weeks. Thirty-two crossbred calves were housed in groups of four at 20 weeks old. Sixteen of the calves were artificially infested with the long-nosed cattle louse Linognathus vituli and 16 were left uninfested as controls. In infested animals the number of lice on the shoulders averaged 2.3 per 10 cm length of parted hair. The recorded frequency of irritation, manifested by rubbing and self-licking, was significantly greater in the louse-infested calves than in the uninfested controls. The infested calves spent 28 s/h rubbing and 95 s/h self-licking, compared with 8 s and 62 s/h spent by the uninfested controls. The infested calves also spent more than twice as long scratching as the controls. There were no significant effects of the infestation on social grooming.10aanimals10aAnoplura10aBehavior, Animal/physiology10aBody Weight10acattle10aCattle Diseases10agrooming10aHousing, Animal10aLice Infestations/physiopathology/veterinary10aMonitoring, Physiologic10aResearch Support, Non-U.S. Gov't10aTime Factors10aVideo Recording1 aWeeks, C., A.1 aNicol, C., J.1 aTitchener, R., N. uhttps://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/content/effects-sucking-louse-linognathus-vituli-grooming-behaviour-housed-calves02597nas a2200349 4500008004100000020001400041245015200055210006900207260000900276300001400285490000700299520143600306653001601742653001201758653000901770653001801779653004801797653004601845653002101891653001301912653004601925653001501971653003701986653002502023653002402048653001602072100001802088700001202106700002202118700001202140856009502152 2001 eng d a0022-339500aHorizontal and vertical ectoparasite transmission of three species of Mallophaga, and individual variation in european bee-eaters (Merops apiaster)0 aHorizontal and vertical ectoparasite transmission of three speci c2001 a256 - 2620 v873 a

Dispersal of avian ectoparasites can occur through either vertical transmission from adult birds to their offspring in the nest or through horizontal transmission between adult birds or through phoresy. In this study, we investigated the importance of the 2 main transmission modes in the colonial European bee-eater and examined whether individual differences in ectoparasite intensity exist in relation to age, sex, and morphological features of the birds. The intensity of 3 chewing lice species was investigated. Almost all adult bee-eaters (98.3%, n = 176) were infested with 1 of the 3 ectoparasite species, whereas only 10.8% (n = 167) of all chicks were infested. Meropoecus meropis was the most frequent ectoparasite species on adult bee-eaters (prevalence 94.3%), whereas Meromenopon meropis was the most common species on chicks (prevalence 9.6%). Our results suggest that chewing lice are mainly horizontally transmitted among adult bee-eaters and mainly among pair members, whereas vertical transmission between parents and nestlings is less frequent. These conclusions were supported by a relation in ectoparasite intensity of pair members and a parasite removal experiment. Ectoparasite intensity was in general low in nestlings and did not correlate with ectoparasite intensity of their parents. Host age, sex, weight, and other morphological features did not explain variation in chewing lice infestation.

10aAge Factors10aanimals10abird10abird diseases10aDisease Transmission, Horizontal/veterinary10aDisease Transmission, Vertical/veterinary10aFeeding Behavior10agrooming10aLice Infestations/transmission/veterinary10aMallophaga10aResearch Support, Non-U.S. Gov't10aSex Behavior, Animal10aSex Characteristics10aSex Factors1 aDarolová, A.1 aHoi, H.1 aKrištofík, Ján1 aHoi, C. uhttp://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1645/0022-3395%282001%29087%5B0256%3AHAVETO%5D2.0.CO%3B201291nas a2200229 4500008004100000245004900041210004800090260000900138300001200147490000700159520060900166653001200775653003300787653003200820653001300852653000900865653004900874653000800923653003700931100002000968856007300988 2002 eng d00aLeaf-grooming by a wild chimpanzee in Mahale0 aLeafgrooming by a wild chimpanzee in Mahale c2002 a87 - 900 v433 aDuring the course of systematic observations of the leaf-grooming behavior by the chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) of the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania, I recovered a louse from a leaf "groomed" by an adult male chimpanzee after a typical leaf-grooming session. During the leaf-grooming session I observed a small object on his lower lip. He picked up a leaf, transferred the small object from his lip to the leaf, folded the leaf and crushed the folded side of the leaf with his thumb. I present this observation as further evidence of the "squashing ectoparasites" hypothesis for leaf-grooming.10aanimals10aApe Diseases/physiopathology10aBehavior, Animal/physiology10agrooming10alice10aLice Infestations/physiopathology/veterinary10aPan10aResearch Support, Non-U.S. Gov't1 aZamma, Koichiro uhttp://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/44860.pdf01831nas a2200253 4500008004100000245009700041210006900138260000900207300001200216490000700228520100700235653001201242653003201254653001301286653001201299653004901311653002001360653001101380653003601391653003701427653002001464100002001484856007301504 2002 eng d00aGrooming site preferences determined by lice infection among Japanese macaques in Arashiyama0 aGrooming site preferences determined by lice infection among Jap c2002 a41 - 490 v433 aI investigated the effect of the density of louse eggs (Pedicinus obtusus and P. eurygaster) on grooming site preferences in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Louse eggs were more often found on the outer side of the body (upper back, lower back, outer arms, and outer legs) than on the inner side of the body (chest, belly, inner arms, and inner legs). Japanese macaques were more likely to be groomed on the outer side than the inner side of the body by allogrooming and autogrooming. Such grooming site preferences correlated with the distribution of louse eggs but not with the areas of body parts. Thus, the ecology of lice might affect grooming behavior of Japanese macaques. Five hundred and fifty louse eggs were estimated to parasitize an adult female Japanese macaque. Considering the intrinsic rate of natural increase of lice, monkeys need to be groomed almost every day. This suggests that Japanese macaques need grooming partners and form social bonds with others for everyday grooming.10aanimals10aBehavior, Animal/physiology10agrooming10ahygiene10aLice Infestations/physiopathology/veterinary10aLice/embryology10aMacaca10aMonkey Diseases/physiopathology10aResearch Support, Non-U.S. Gov't10asocial behavior1 aZamma, Koichiro uhttp://www.phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/44861.pdf02439nas a2200397 4500008004100000020001400041245007600055210006900131260000900200300001400209490000800223520126800231653001501499653002501514653001201539653004001551653001701591653001501608653002201623653002601645653003201671653001301703653000901716653003701725653004501762653000901807653002001816100002201836700002101858700002001879700001801899700002101917700001901938700001501957856006901972 2005 eng d a0962-845200aAdaptive significance of avian beak morphology for ectoparasite control0 aAdaptive significance of avian beak morphology for ectoparasite  c2005 a811 - 8170 v2723 a

The beaks of Darwin's finches and other birds are among the best known examples of adaptive evolution. Beak morphology is usually interpreted in relation to its critical role in feeding. However, the beak also plays an important role in preening, which is the first line of defence against harmful ectoparasites such as feather lice, fleas, bugs, flies, ticks and feather mites. Here, we show a feature of the beak specifically adapted for ectoparasite control. Experimental trimming of the tiny (1-2 mm) maxillary overhang of rock pigeons (Columba livia) had no effect on feeding efficiency, yet triggered a dramatic increase in feather lice and the feather damage they cause. The overhang functions by generating a shearing force against the tip of the lower mandible, which moves forward remarkably quickly during preening, at up to 31 timesper second. This force damages parasite exoskeletons, significantly enhancing the efficiency of preening for parasite control. Overhangs longer than the natural mean of 1.6mm break significantly more often than short overhangs. Hence, stabilizing selection will favour overhangs of intermediate length. The adaptive radiation of beak morphology should be re-assessed with both feeding and preening in mind.

10aadaptation10aAnalysis of Variance10aanimals10aBeak/anatomy & histology/physiology10aBiomechanics10aColumbidae10aComparative Study10aFeathers/parasitology10aFeeding Behavior/physiology10agrooming10alice10aResearch Support, Non-U.S. Gov't10aResearch Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.10aUtah10aVideo Recording1 aClayton, Dale, H.1 aMoyer, Brett, R.1 aBush, Sarah, E.1 aJones, T., G.1 aGardiner, D., W.1 aRhodes, B., B.1 aGoller, F. uhttp://phthiraptera.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/45880.pdf02932nas a2200325 4500008004100000245008700041210006900128260000900197300001400206490000700220520207200227653001402299653001302313653000902326653001602335653001002351653001102361653001402372653001302386653001602399653001102415653001302426653001002439653001302449653000902462653001202471100002202483700002002505856008102525 2001 eng d00aInfluence of host ecology and morphology on the diversity of Neotropical bird lice0 aInfluence of host ecology and morphology on the diversity of Neo c2001 a455 - 4670 v943 a

Host-parasite systems can be powerful arenas in which to explore factors influencing community structure. We used a comparative approach to examine the influence of host ecology and morphology on the diversity of chewing lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) among 52 species of Peruvian birds. For each host species we calculated two components of parasite diversity: 1) cumulative species richness, and 2) mean abundance. We tested for correlations between these parasite indices and 13 host ecological and morphological variables. Host ecological variables included geographic range size, local population density, and microhabitat use. Host morphological variables included body mass, plumage depth, and standard dimensions of bill, foot and toenail morphology, all of which could influence the efficiency of anti-parasite grooming. Data were analysed using statistical and comparative methods that control for sampling effort and host phylogeny. None of the independent host variables correlated with louse species richness when treated as a dependent variable. When richness was treated as an independent variable, however, it was positively correlated with mean louse abundance. Host body mass was also positively correlated with mean louse abundance. When louse richness and host body mass were held constant, mean louse abundance correlated negatively with the degree to which the upper mandible of the host's bill overhangs the lower mandible. This correlation suggests that birds with longer overhangs are better at controlling lice during preening. We propose a specific functional hypothesis in which preening damages lice by exerting a shearing force between the overhang and the tip of the lower mandible. This study is the first to suggest a parasite-control function of such a detailed component of bill morphology across species. Avian biologists have traditionally focused almost exclusively on bills as tools for feeding. We suggest that the adaptive radiation of bill morphology should be reinterpreted with both preening and feeding in mind.

10aabundance10aBehavior10abody10acommunities10adoves10afishes10ageography10agrooming10aindependent10amarine10aparasite10arange10arichness10arock10aspecies1 aClayton, Dale, H.1 aWalther, B., A. uhttps://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/3266_0.pdf01529nas a2200193 4500008004100000245011500041210006900156260000900225300001400234490000800248520086200256653001301118653001001131653000901141653001101150100001501161700001801176856014101194 1993 eng d00aElimination of external parasites (Lice) is the primary function of grooming in free-ranging Japanese macaques0 aElimination of external parasites Lice is the primary function o c1993 a187 - 1930 v1013 aGrooming behavior was studied from September 1990 to May 1992 in the provisioned troop of free-ranging Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) at Jigokudani Monkey Park, Japan. By confiscating what macaques picked up during grooming, we found that macaques pick up lice (Pedicinus obtusus and Pedicinus eurygaster) and the eggs of lice and eat them. Slow motion video replays were used to discriminate the prey of grooming. Most (98.9%) of what Japanese macaques picked up and ate during grooming were the eggs of lice. Hence, allo-grooming has an altruistic function to eliminate the external parasites on others. In particular, grooming of infants by mothers appears to be important maternal care. On the other hand, in Japanese macaques, grooming is also insect-feeding behavior, and such selfish benefit may favor grooming under individual natural selection.10agrooming10aJapan10alice10aMacaca1 aTanaka, I.1 aTakefushi, H. uhttps://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/content/elimination-external-parasites-lice-primary-function-grooming-free-ranging-japanese-macaques